History (Ancient India History :- Mahajanapadas & Rise Of Magadha)

Ancient India History :- Mahajanapadas & Rise Of MagadhaMahajanapadas- Budhhist literature Angutara Nikaya gives a list of 16 great kingdoms or Mahajanapadas in the begining of 6th century B.C- Major reason of the formation of Janapadas was use of Iron tools for agricultural & military purposes- In course of time small or weak kingdoms either submitted to stronger rulers or got eliminated. Finally in 6th century BC only 4 major kingdoms survived: *Vatsa  *Avanti  *Magadha  *KosalaVatsa *Shifted kuru clan with capital Kaushambi *Most powerful ruler was Udayana *After his death Vatsa was annexed to AvantiAvanti *Most important ruler was Pradyota  *Patronized Buddhism  *Finally was annexed to MagadhaKosala *Most famous ruler was Prasenjit whose sister was married to Bimbisara  *Prasenjit gave Kasi as dowry to Magadha  *After his death Kosala became part of MagadhaMagadha *Most powerful kingdom of north India & founded by Jarasangha *Famous rulers were *Bimbisara, Ajatashatru →(Haryankas)  *Shishunaga  *NandasMahajanapadas :- CapitalKamboja :- RajpuraGandhar :- TaxilaSurasena :- MathuraMatsya :- ViratVatsa :- KaushambiChedis :- ShuktimatiKasi :- VaranasiAvanti     Ujjain & MahismatiKuru :- Hatinapur & IndraprasthaPanchala :- Kampilya & AhichattraKosala :- Ayodhya & SravastiMallas :- Pava & KusinagarVajjis :- VaishaliAnga :- ChampaMagadha :- RajgirAsmaka :- PotanaRise of MagadhaShishunagas *Temporary shifted the capital to Vaishali  *Defeated Avanti & bought end to 100 year old rivalry *Transferred capital from Vaishali to PatliputraMahapadmananda *Known as Ekarat (sole king who destroy others)  *Conquered Kalinga & bought image of Jina as trophy *Hathigumpha inscription of kharavela King (Kalinga) refers to conquest of Kalinga by NandasDhanananda *Last ruler of Nanda dynasty  *During his reign, Alexander invaded India but did not move ahead to east (Nanda’s Power)  *Chandragupta Maurya & Kautilya overthrew him as oppressive way of tax collection was already resented by peopleCause of Magadha’s Success *Advantageous geographical position & rich iron ores of Rajgir  *Capitals: Rajgir (Surrounded by 5 hills) + Patliputra (Surrounded by Ganga, Gandhak, Son & Ghagra river → True Jaladurga) *Magadha → 1st used elephants in war against enemies

History (Ancient India History :- Buddhism)

Ancient India History :- Buddhism

 *Founded by Gautam Buddha (Original Name → Siddhartha)

 *Born in 563 BC at Lumbini in Nepal near Kapilavastu (As a kshatriya in Shakya clan)

 *Parents → Suddhodhana & Mahamaya

 *Left Home at the age of 29 in search of truth & did intense penance & meditation

 *Attained Nirvana under a Pipal tree at Bodh Gaya & henceforth known as Buddha (The enlightened one)

 *Delivered his 1st sermon at Sarnath (Banaras) & died at the age of 80 at Kushinagar (U.P)

Noble truth by Buddha

 *World is full of sorrow

 *People suffer on account of desires

 *If desires are conquered, Nirvana can be achieved i.e. free from cycle of birth & death & which can be done by following 8 fold path (ashtangika marga):

Right Understanding :- Right Determination :- Right Speech :- Right Action

Right livelihood :- Right Exercise :- Right Mindfulness :- Right Medication

Tri Ratnas of Buddhism

 *Budhha (The enlightened)

 *Dhamma ( Doctrine of Buddhism)

 *Sangha (Order of Buddhism)

Teachings by Buddha

 *Budhha was a practical reformer & did not believe in soul or god or metaphysical world & concerned himself with the worldly problems

 *Suggested that a person should avoid excess of both, Luxury & Austerity & prescribed a middle path

 *Laid great emphasis on Karma (Varna based on action not on birth) & Ahimsa

 *Opposed varna system & laid down the principle of social equality

Spread of Buddhism

 *Buddhism had 2 kinds of disciples – Monks (Bhikshus) & Lay worshippers (Upasikas)

 *Monks were organised into sangha for the purpose of spread of Buddhist teachings

 *Membership was open to all, Male or female without any cast distinction, but every member had to take vow of continence, poverty & faith (Penance to achieve liberation )

 *Use of Pali language also contributed to the spread of Buddhism

Buddhist Text

Tripitakas → All written in Pali Language

 *Sutta-pitaka

 *Vinaya-pitaka

 *Abhidhamma-pitaka

Contribution of Buddhism

 *Slaves & debtors couldn’t join sangha rule helped moneylenders & richer sections of society

 *Earliest Budhhist text “ Suttanipata” pleads for protection of cattles & helped to prevent their decimation

 *Taught people to put reason in everything & pleaded for logic instead of superstitions hence promoted rationalism in people

 *Promoted education through residential universities like Valabhi, Nalanda & Vikramshila

 *Formed Hybrid Sanskrit by mixture of Pali & Sanskrit

Cause of Decline

 *Revival of Brahmanism & rise of Bhagavatism

 *Use of Sanskrit instead of Pali from 4th Buddhist council (Around 100 AD)

 *After birth of Mahayana, Practice of Idol worship, Huge offerings & donations became common & led to the deterioration of moral standards

 *Attack of Hunas (Around 500 – 600 AD) & Attack of Turkish invaders (1200 AD) destroyed major Buddhist Monasteries

 *Brahamana ruler Pushyamitra have said to persecuted Buddhists

 *Shaivite Shashanka have said to cut the original Bodhi tree at Bodhgaya

Buddhist Councils

1st Council @ Rajgir

 *Was held immediately after the death of Buddha at Saptaparni cave in which the unwritten teachings of Buddha were penned down after his death.

 *Held at Rajgir under the patronage of Ajatashatru under the chairmanship of Mahakashyap

 *Ananda composed Suttapitaka (Buddha’s Teachings) & Upali composed Vinaypitaka ( Monastic code for Buddhism)

2nd Council @ Vaishali

 *Was held approx. 100 years after the death of Buddha under the patronage of King Kalasoka under the chairmanship of Sabakami

 *Mainly due to 10 disputed points under Vinaypitaka (Monastic codes of Buddhism)

3rd Council @ Patliputra

 *Held under the patronage of Ashoka under the chairmanship of Mogliputra tissa

 *Compilation of Abhidhamma pitaka took place (Philosophical exposition of Budhhism)

 *Budhhism preached & Propagated by Ashoka is known as Hinyana

4th Council @ Kashmir

 *Held under the patronage of Kanishka under the chairmanship of Vasumitra

 *Resulted in division of Buddhism into Hinyana & Mahayana

 *Asvaghosa participated in this council & all the deliberations were made in Sanskrit

Origin of Mahayana Buddhism

 *Monks around beginning of Christian era started to accept huge cash & donations & even started accepting non-vegetarian foreigners in Sangha

 *Monks became more lax in day to day life, started accepting gold & silver, started eating non-veg food & started wearing elaborated robes

 *Disciples even deserted religious order of Sangha & resumed their householder’s life; Started using Sanskrit instead of Pali & started worshipping statues of Buddha & started practicing rituals instead of his symbols.

 *This new kind of Buddhism was known as Mahayana (Greater vehicle) & Hinyana (Lesser vehicle); the former believed in image worship, rituals and Bodhisattvas, (incarnations of Buddha) while the latter continued the practices of the earlier Buddhism.

Mahayana

 *Individual as center & firm to letter of Buddhist teachings

 *Scriptures written in sanskrit are sutra, in Angas

 *Salvation by work & Believed in Karmas

 *Strives after his own salvation

Hinyana

 *Sangha as center & firm to essence of Buddhist teaching

 *Scriptures written in Pali as Pitakas

 *Salvation by faith & Believed in karma

 *Concerned with the salvation of others

History (Ancient India History :- Jainism)

Ancient India History :- Jainism

 *ainism is of ancient origin & believed to have 24 Tirthankaras / Great teachers in their religion

 *1st one was Rishabdev (Born in Ayodhya) who is said to have laid the foundation of orderly human society & realised that the source of Jaina philosophy was Adinath.

 *23rd was Parshavnath (Born in Varanasi) & Last and 24th was Vardhamana Mahavira (Born 540 BC at Kundangrama near Vaishali)

Vardhamana Mahavira

Father :- Sidhhartha :- Head of Jnatrika Clan

Mother :- Trishla :- Sister of Lichchhavi chief chetaka, whose daughter married to Bimbisara

Mahavira’s family was connected to royal family of Magadha

 *In search of truth Mahavira abandoned the world at the age of 30 & became ascetic & medicated for 12 years practicing austerities.

 *In 13th year, at the age of 42, he attained Kaivalya (Juan) under Sal tree at Timbhikagrama

 *Kaivalya → One who conquered misery & happiness → And because of this conquest he is known as Mahavira or great hero or jina (the conqueror) & his followers Jainas

 *He propagated religion for 30 years & passed away at the age of 72 at Pavapuri near Rajgir

3 principles of Jainism → Triratnas

 *Right faith (believe in teachings & wisdom of Mahavira)

 *Right Knowledge (Acceptance of theory that there is no god & world has been existing without a creator & all objects possess a soul)

 *Right conduct (Refers to observance of 5 great vows)

 *Ahimsa

 *Satya

 *Asteya (Not to steal)

 *Parigraha (Not to acquire property)

 *Brahamcharya (observe continence / not to led immoral life → added by Mahavira)

Teaching of Jainism

 *Rejected the authority of Vedas & objected to Vedic rituals & sacrifices

 *Even practice of agriculture was considered sinful as it caused injury to earth, worms & animals

 *Doctrine of ascetism & renunciation was carried to great lengths by practice of starvation, Nudity & other form of self-tortures (Penance for all sins committed)

 *Although Parvanath (23rd Teacher) asked people to cover their upper & lower body part but Mahavira asked them to discard cloths altogether ( Extreme austerity)

 *Mahavira did not condemn Verna system as Buddhism did as according to Mahavira , a person born in higher or lower verna is the consequences of the sins of past life & through penance & meritorious life they can attain liberation

 *Jainism mainly aimed at freedom of Individual from worldly bonds

Twelve small vows (anuvrats) of Jainism

Five anuvrats

 *avoiding injury to mobile beings which have two or more senses or desisting from deliberate acts of violence

 *truthfulness to avoid false statements out of extreme affection for someone or out of hatred for someone

 *refraining from taking anything not given

 *desisting from sexual relationship with anyone other than one’s spouse

 *voluntarily limiting the possession of all forms of assets

The Seven supplementaries

 *refraining from movement beyond a limited area

 *restricting a movement to even a more limited area

 *refraining from wanton destruction of the environmentby thought, word or deed

 *keeping aloof from a sinful conduct for a set period of time (observing samayik)

 *fasting on sacred days and observing special restrictions at secluded places

 *limiting the use of consumable and non-consumable goods

 *Sharing your food or resources with guests or wandering ascetics.

Spread of Jainism

 *Admitted both women and shudras in its order of followers

 *Used prakrit (common language) for preaching instead of sanskrit

 *200 years after the death of Mahavira, there was a serious famine in Ganga valley. Many Jain followers led by Chandragupta Maurya & Bhadrabahu left for south (Karnataka) & rest stayed back under the leadership of Sthalbahu. Emmigrants spread Jainism in south India.

 *Meanwhile Sthalbahu changed the code of conduct for the monks which led to division of Jainism into 2 sects Swetambars (White clad / Northerners) & Digambars ( Naked / Sky Clad / Southerners)

 *1st Jain council was held at Pataliputra led by Sthalbahu & 2nd was held at Valabhi where 12 Anagas of Swetambars were finally compiled

Contribution of Jainism

 *1st serious attempt to mitigate evil of verna system & ritualistic vedic system

 *Adoption of Prakrit by Jainas helped in its growth & many regional languages grew out of Prakrit especially Shauraseni, out of which

Marathi grew

 *Jainas composed earliest important work in “ Apabhramsha” & prepared its 1st grammar

 *Jainism also contributed to the growth of Kannada

 *Basadis → Jains Monastic establishments

 *Jainism religious literature is written in “Ardhamagadhi” & text were finally compiled at Valabhi (Gujrat)

History (Ancient India History :- Jainism & Buddhism – Cause Of Origin)

Ancient India History :- Jainism & Buddhism – Cause Of Origin

Ritualistic Dominion of Brahamanas

 *Kshatriya reacted strongly against the ritualistic dominion of brahamanas & vernas based on birth.

 *Verdhaman Mahavira & Gautama Buddha both belonged to Kshatriya clan & disputed the authority of brahamanas.

Rise of new Agriculture Economy

 *Real reason was rise of new agriculture economy in north India which was based on iron ploughshare

 *Required the use of bullocks & cattles & could not flourish without animal husbandry.

 *But Vedic practices of killing cattles in sacrifice led to decimation of cattle wealth, against which both Jainism & Buddhism spoke & propagated the idea of ahimsa.

 Punch Marked Coins

- Earliest coins belonged to 500 BC & are known as punch marked coins, 1st used by Vaishyas / Traders. Use of punch marked coins facilitated trade & commerce, which added to importance of Vaishyas as such. Vaishyas were ranked 3rd in verna system & were eager to improve their position, hence extended generous support to Buddhism & Jainism along with the following reasons:

 *Both were not biased towards any verna system

 *Both Preached the gospel of non-violence, which would put an end to the war b/w kingdoms & consequently will promote trade & commerce

 *Brahmanical law book “Dharamsutras” decried lending money on interest & a person who live on interest were not held in esteem by them, hence they were eager to improve their position.

New Way of life

- A strong reaction by common people against use of coins, private properties, new dwellings, new dresses, new system of transport & luxury; Hence common people yearned to go back to primitive ways of life hence supported Buddhism & Jainism which

 *preferred simple, Puritan & ascetic living & asked people to forgo all good things in life

 *were not allowed to touch gold & silver & were to accept as much to keep their body & soul together

History (Ancient India History :- Later Vedic Period (1000 – 600 BC))

Ancient India History :- Later Vedic Period (1000 – 600 BC)

 *Advent of Iron Age

 *Origin of Sam Veda, Yajur Veda & Atharva Veda

 *Composition of Samhitas, Brahmanas & Upanishads

 *Marked by invention of PGW (Painted grey ware) for bowls & dishes

Samhitas: Collection of Vedic hymns & Mantras

Sama Veda

 *Book of chants

 *Origin of Indian music

 *For recitation, prayers of Rig Veda were set to tunes

 *Modified collection is known as Sama Veda

Yajur Veda

 *Contains hymns & rituals, sacrifices, Royal ceremonies

 *Rajsuya & Vajpeya mentioned for the 1st time

 *Written in verse and prose form

Atharva Veda

 *Origin of Indian medicine

 *Contains formulae, charms & spells to ward off evil & diseases

 *Composed by a non-aryan

- According to Satapatha Brahamana Rig veda, Sama Veda & Yajur veda constitutes Traya Veda & were composed by Aryans

Brahamanas

 *Prose commentaries of all four Vedas

 *18 in number

 *Most important is Satapatha Brahamanas

 *Full of ritualistic formulae & explains social and religious meaning of rituals & sacrifices

Aranyakas

 *Forest books → Composed in forests

 *Were meant to study in forests

 *Describes the lifestyle of Sanyasis in forests

Developments in Later Vedic Period

 *Satapatha brahamanas refers to expansion of Aryans into eastern Gangetic plains i.e. Aryans expanded from Punjab to whole of Uttar Pradesh covered by Ganga – Yamuna Doab

 *Soon Kuru occupied upper portion of the doab along with Delhi & set up their capital at Hastinapur

 *Kurus coalesced with Panchalas who occupied middle portion of the doab

 *This era marks the famous Mahabharata war at land of Kurus i.e. Kurukshetra

 *In later Vedic times, people hardly knew the use of burnt bricks as mud structures have been discovered at Hastinapur

 *From traditions we learnt that Hastinapur was thoroughly flooded and remnant of Kuru clan moved to Kaushambi near Allahabad.

- Later Vedic people succeeded in their second phase of expansion because of use of iron weapons & horse drawn chariots (Around 1000 BC iron appeared in Dharwar district of Karnataka & at Gandhar)

 *Iron was called shyama or Krishana Aya (Black metal)

 *Agriculture was now chief means of livelihood with rice & wheat main crops along with the use of wooden ploughshare → Predominantly pastoral society became agricultural

 *For the 1st time Vedic people came to be acquainted with Rice & called it Vrihi (in Vedic text recommended in Vedic rituals)

Later Vedic Period Crops Name

Whea :- Godhuma

Barley :- Yava

Rice :- Vrihi

Sugarcane :- Ikshu

 *Famous pottery of this age was ‘Painted Grey Ware’ and ‘Northern Black Polished Ware.

 *Term Rashtra (Territory) appeared for the 1st time in this period

Famous King’s ceremony of this age:

 *Rajasuya Sacrifice: Supposed to confer supreme power on him (To impress/influence people)

 *Vajapeya: Chariot race in which royal chariot was made to win the race against his kinmen

 *Ashvamedha: Unquestioned control over area on which royal horse ran uninterrupted

Later Vedic Period Administration

 *Popular assemblies lost their importance & royal power increased at their cost (Vidhata completely disappeared)

 *Sabha & Samiti continued to hold their ground but women were no longer permitted to sit on sabha & it was now dominated by nobles & brahamanas

 *Collection of taxes and tributes became common & responsibility for the same lied with officer called “Sangrihitri”

 *Even now king did not maintain a standing army & tribal units were mustered at the time of war

Societal Division in Later Vedic period

 *Later Vedic period was divided into four vernas:

Brahamanas     Kshatriyas / Rajanas     Vaishyas     Shudras

 *Growing practice of sacrifice greatly added to power of brahamanas

 *Vaishyas were placed in the category of Dvija or Twice born and regarded as only tribute payers; on which Kshatriyas & Brahamans lived

 *All 3 higher vernas shared one common feature : Upanayana or investiture with sacred thread according to Vedic mantras

 *Shudras were deprived of sacred thread ceremony & recitation of Gayatri Mantra

 *Certain sections of the artisans such as Rathkaras / Chariot makers enjoyed a higher status & were entitled to sacred thread ceremony

According to Aitareya Brahmana,

 *In relation with prince, Brahamana is described as seeker of livelihood & acceptor of gifts but removable at will

 *A vaishya is tribute payer, meant for being beaten & oppressed at will

 *Shudras as servant of another & meant for being beaten & made to work at will by another

- Institution of Gotra appeared in later Vedic times, literally it mean cow pen i.e. a place where cattle belonging to whole clan are kept, but in due time it signified as descent from a common ancestors. No marriage could take place between persons belonging to same Gotra or having the same lineage.

Later Vedic period refers to 3 divisions of India viz.

 *Aryavrata (Northern India )

 *Madhyadesha (Central India)

 *Dakshinpatha ( Southern India)

Later Vedic period mentions 4 Ashrams

 *Brahamchari → For Student

 *Grihastha → For householder

 *Vanaprastha →  Hermit (a stage of gradual detachment)

 *Sanyasin / Ascetic → Who renounced the world fully

 *Not applicable to women & people of lower varnas

  Gods of Later Vedic Period

 *Two outstanding Rig Vedic gods Indra & Agni lost their former importance & Prajapati (The creator) came to occupy the supreme position along with Rudra (The destroyer) & Vishnu (Protector of people)

 *Pushans (Supposed to look after cattles) became god of Shudras although in Rig Veda cattle rearing was primary occupation of Aryans

Asvins :- Protector of agriculture (Killer the rats)

Savitri :- To fix a place where a new home could be built

Surya :- Remove Demons

 *Signs of Idolatry appeared in later Vedic times & mode of worship changed considerably as sacrifices became far more important than mere prayers along with formulae(Mantras) carefully pronounced by sacrifier

 *Sacrifier was known as Yajamana (Performer of Yajna) & Guests were known as Goghna (Fed on cattle) →Sacrifices involved killing of animals at large scale especially cattles

 *These formulae, Rituals & sacrifices were invented & elaborated by priests called brahamanas who claimed monopoly of priestly knowledge but still territory was not given as gifts in post Vedic period

Status of Women in later Vedic period

- Status of women declined as primarily pastoral society now became agricultural & women which in pastoral time worked neck to neck with men for fetching milk & all, begin doing all household chores, with men going to plough the field & grow grains

 *Deprived to attend assemblies

 *Deprived of education

 *Deprived of Upanayana ceremony

 *Child marriage became common

 *Purdah and sati was not prevalent

Upanishads

 *Towards the end of Vedic period around 600 BC, a strong reaction against priestly domination, cults & rituals began especially in lands of Panchalas & Videha & upanishads were compiled.

 *Upanishads were mainly philosophical texts criticizing the rituals & laid stress on Right belief & Right knowledge of self-i.e. Relation of Atman with Brahma should be properly understood

 *Upanishads describes dialogues between guru & shishya and were probably written by Kshatriyas

 *Brahma emerged as supreme entity in Upanishads comparable to powerful kings of the era

 *Upanishads followed principle of Jnana i.e.

 *True knowledge for peace

 *Changelessness, Indestructibility & immortality of soul

 *Salvation

- End of Later Vedic Period marked the beginning of territorial kingdoms such as Panchala Janapada, Koshala Janapada etc. & wars were not fought only for cattles but also for territory.

History (Ancient India History :- Early Vedic Period (1500 – 1000 BC))

Ancient India History :- Early Vedic Period (1500 – 1000 BC)

Advent of Aryans :- Aryans means of high birth

Age of Rig Veda :- Vedas means to know – Superior knowledge

 *Aryans were generally referred to people who spoke Indo- Aryan language (Sanskrit)

 *Society was mainly male dominated; women were treated with dignity and honour

 *Early life in this period seems to be mainly pastoral with agriculture being the secondary occupation

 *Domesticated horses to ride

Rig Veda

 *Earliest text of Indo European language

 *Contains prayers offered to Agni, Indra, Mitra, Varuna & other gods

 *Consists of 10 mandalas or books with 2 – 7 being the earliest one called family books & 1 and 10 being the latest editions

 *3rd Mandal consists of Gayatri mantra (Composed by viswamitra to offer prayer to solar deity Savitri)

 *Many things in common with Avesta (oldest Iranian text – Zorasterism)

Advent of Aryans

 *Aryans called Indus valley “Sapt Sindavah” i.e. land of 7 rivers with river Indus (Sindhu) most mentioned in Rig Veda

 *Saraswati (Naditarna) is mentioned as the holiest river in Rig Veda, named after Harakwati (Hemland river) in south Afganistan

 *Aryans appeared in subcontinent around 1500 B.C. & came into conflict with its inhabitants Dasas & Dasyus

 *Dasas: Mentioned in ancient Iranian literature hence may be early Aryans

 *Dasyus: Possibly original inhabitants of the country & possibly worshipped Phallus (Lingam)

 *Aryan chief who overpowered them was called Trasadasyu , generally soft towards Dasas but hostile towards Dasyus (Term Dasyuhatya is repeatedly mentioned in Rig Veda)

 *Aryans succeeded everywhere because they possessed chariot driven by horses & possibly with coats of mail & better armory → Introduced these things for the 1st time in west Asia & India

 *Aryans were divided into 5 tribes called Panchajana mainly, along with other tribes → Most powerful ones were Bharatas of Tritsu Family supported by Viswamitra

Battle of 10 Kings fought at River Parushni (Ravi):

 *Bharat ruling clan was opposed by host of 10 chiefs (5 aryans & 5 non aryans) supported by Vashishta

 *Bharat clan emerged victorious & subsequently joined hand with Purus (Most powerful defeated tribe) & formed a new ruling tribe called kurus

 *Bharatvansa is named after tribe Bharata & 1st mentioned in Rig Veda

Early Vedic Period

 *Agriculture was well known to pre aryans & ploughshare is 1st mentioned in early part of Rig Veda

 *But agriculture was perhaps used to produce fodder only → Predominantly pastoral people with cattle rearing as main occupation

 *Most of the wars were fought for the sake of cows as the term for war in Rig Veda is Gavishthi i.e. search for cows (Hence cows seems to have been most important wealth)

 *Gifts were made to priests in form of cows & women slaves → Not in form of land

 *Rig Veda mentions several artisans namely Carpenters, Chariot makers, weavers, Leather workers, Potters etc. along with term Ayas used for copper or Bronze which shows metal working was well known

 *Aryans or Vedic people mainly relied on land routes as the word samundra mentioned in Rig veda mainly denotes a collection of water

Rig Vedic term     Meaning

Gau :- Cow

Gavishti :- Search for Cows

Gopati :- Raja or chief, protector of cows

Godhuli :- Measure of time

Duhitr :- Daughter or one who milks the cows

Gomat :- wealthy man who owned many cattle

Administration in Rig Vedic Period

 *Tribal chief at the center (Rajan)

 *King was known as Gopaljanya i.e. protector of its people & cows

 *King was assisted by Purohits, Senani & Gramanis

 *King did not exercise unlimited power & worked in reckon with tribal organization

 *King’s position was hereditary (but could be removed from power if found weak and inefficient or cruel).

Rig Vedic Assemblies & administrative division

 *Several assemblies such as Sabha, Samiti, Vidhata & Gana are mentioned in Rig Veda & even women were allowed to attend Sabha & Vidhata assemblies.

 *Two most important assemblies were Sabha & Samiti as even kings & chiefs showed eagerness to win their support

 *No introduction of taxes & offerings (Known as Bali) were made voluntarily by people

 *Aryan tribes was known as Jana ( Janapada or territory is not used even once in Rig Veda as Territory / Kingdom was not established)

 - Jana was divided into Group of villages called Vis (Headed by Vrajapati),

 - Vis was further divided into Grama or small tribal units meant for fighting (Headed by Graminis),

 - Grama was further divided into Kulas (Family) headed by Kulapa

 *When Grama clashed with each other then it caused samgrama or war

 *Kinship was the basis of social structure & a man was identified by the clan he belongs to

Societal Practices & Divisions

 *Rig veda speaks of Arya varna (Aryans) & Das varna (Non Aryans), where possibly the distinction was on the basis of colour

 *Society was patriarchal & people prayed to God mainly for brave sons & Cattles.

 *Practice of Levirate (Man marrying to Brother’s widow) & widow remarriage was prevalent with no mention of sati system or Child marriage as marriageable age mentioned in Rig Veda is 16- 17 Years

 *Women poets in Rig Veda peiord : Apala, Vishwavara, Ghosa & Lopamudra

 *Tribal Society was divided into 3 groups mainly Warrior, priest & People with 4th division called shudra appeared towards end of Rig vedic period (1st time in 10th book of Rig Veda)

 *Conquered Dasas & Dasyus were treated as slaves or Shudra by Aryans for domestic work purpose

 *Main pottery of this period is OCP (ochre coloured pottery)

Early Vedic Gods

No Idol Worship 

Indra :- Warlord / Raingod / Purandara / Breaker of forts

Agni :- Fire god & intermediary b/w God  & peopleMarriages were solemnize in his presenceDestroyed germs & dirt hence was considered pure\

Varuna :- Personified as water & supposed to keep natural order in line

Soma :- God of plants, & an intoxicating drink somras named after it

Marut :- Personified as storm

Aditi :- Goddess of eternity :- Not so Prominent in Rig veda

Usha :- Appearance of dawn

Other gods were Prithvi, Vayu etc. Mainly Nature gods

 *Gods were invited to take partake of sacrifices made by whole tribe (Jana)

 *Sacrifices mainly consists of Vegetables, Barley etc. (No rituals or sacrificial formulae were used).

 *Yajna (sacrifice) was performed along with chanting of Vedic hymns.

 *People poured ghee (clarified butter) and other ingredients into the fire to invoke the blessings of gods.

 *Jana mainly asked for Praja (Children), Pashu (Cattle), Food, Wealth, health etc.

 *Eating of cows meat was strictly prohibited as cow was considered as a sacred animal

History (Ancient India History :- Indus Valley Civilization)

Ancient India History :- Indus Valley Civilization

* Indus valley civilization is older than chalcolithic culture but was far more developed

* Marked the beginning of Bronze age civilization

Sights of Indus Valley Civilization

Early (Pre Harappan) :-    Mature (Harappan)  :-    Late Phase (Post Harappan)
                      
                    :-  Harappa (Pakistan @ Ravi)     
         
                    :-    Mohenjodaro (Pakistan @ Indus)     
                   
                    :-    Chanhudaro (Pakistan @ Indus)     
                   
                    :-    Sutkagendor (Pakistan)     
                   
                    :-    Sukotada (Gujrat)     
                   
                    :-    Lothal (Gujrat @ Bhogava)      

Kalibangan :- Kalibangan :- (Rajasthan @ Ghaggar)      

Banawali :-    Banawali :- (Hissar @Ghaggar)      

Rakhigarhi :- Rakhigarhi (Hissar @Ghaggar) :- Rakhigarhi

Dholavira :- Dholavira (Kutch) :- Dholavira
                              
                              :- Bhagwanpura
                              
                              :- Manda (Jammu), Chandigarh,Shangol (Punjab), Daulatpur,Mitthal (Haryana), AlamgirpurHulas (West UP)

Developments in Indus Valley Civilization

 *Citadel / Acropolis at cities for member of ruling class (west side) & brick houses below citadel in town for commoners

 *Remarkable grid system of roads → Roads cutting at right angle to each other

 *Large scale use of burnt bricks & total absence of stone buildings

 *Remarkable underground drainage system connecting all houses & streets covered by bricks / stone slabs

 *Agriculture technology was well developed (But no use of ploughshare) : Wheat, Rice, Barley, Peas etc. + Domesticated large scale of animals

 *Cotton was 1st produced by Indus people hence Greeks called it Sindon which is derived from Sindh

 *Harappan were 1st to produce silver in the world + wore gold, silver & beads Jewelry

 *Practiced boat making, seal making, Bronze smith, Weavers etc.

 *Granaries & seals show Harappan carried on considerable trade but only through Barter system

 *No temples has been found at any of the site hence can be said that it was ruled by merchants not priests

 *Worshiped Goddess Earth, Pipal Tree, Pashupati Mahadeva & Animals (Bull / Unicorn Rhino)

 *1st to invent the art of writing – Right to left – (Pictographic only → Not deciphered so far)

 *Used weights for trade (Mostly in multiple of 16) & Bronze made marked sticks for measurements

 *Were expert in Potter’s wheel & pottery making

 *Their greatest artistic creation was ” Seals”

 *Mostly limestone was used for sculptures.

Indus Valley Civilization Site :- Remarkable Feature
  
Mohenjodaro     

 *Great Bath (Largest Brick Work)

 *Great Granary (Largest Building)

 *Impressive drainage system

 *Bronze image of dancing girl

 *Image of steatite bearded man

 *Piece of woven cotton

 *Seal of pashupati

 *Prepared Garments

 *Skeletons on stairs of well (Mount of the dead)

Lothal     

 *Artificial Dock (Manchester of Harappan civilization)

 *Art of double burial

 *Cotton cultivation

Kalibangan     

 *Granary & Wooden plough

 *Wells in every house

 *Camels Bone

Harappa     

 *2 rows of 6 granaries

Chanhudaro     

 *Lancashire of India

 *Only city without citadel

 *Bangles Factory

 *Beads Factory

Rakhigarhi     

 *Biggest Site

Theory of Decline of Indus Valley Civilization

 *Natural Calamities such as floods, Earthquakes etc.

 *Decrease in Land fertility

 *Outbreak of an epidemic

 *Decline of trade & Invasion of Aryans

Notable Points

- By the fragmentary remains of the buildings constructed by these people it is not yet possible to know enough about the architectural skill and tastes of the people. However, one thing is clear, the extant buildings do not give us any clue as to aesthetic considerations and there is a certain dull plainness about the architecture which may be due to their ruined and fragmentary condition.

- There does not appear to be any connection between the cities built in the 3rd millennium BC, with an astonishing civic sense, of first rate well-fired brick structures, and the architecture of subsequent thousand years or so, of Indian art history, after the decline and decay of the Harappan civilization and the beginning of the historic period of Indian history, mainly the time of the great Mauryas of Magadha.

-These thousands years or so were a period of tremendous, intellectual and sociological activity and could not be barren of any artistic creations. However, due to the fact that during this time sculpture and architecture was utilising organic and perishable materials such as mud, mud brick, bamboo, timber, leaves, straw and thatch, these have not survived the ravages of time.

- Two important remains of the oldest times are fortifications of the old Rajagriha town, in Bihar and the fortified capital of Sisupalgarh, perhaps the ancient Kalinganagar, near Bhubaneswar.

- Rajagriha fortification wall is made in the roughest possible manner, unhewn stones being piled one on top of the other; belongs to the 6th -5th century BC. However at Sisupalgarh in the 2nd -1st  century BC, stone masons were at work using large blocks of stones to make a very well-made fort entrance that could be closed with huge doors turning on hinges.

- We know it for a fact that stone masonry and stone carving were imported in Ashoka’s times from Persia. There is abundant evidence of stone masons mark similar to those at Persepolis (Persia).

History (Ancient India History :- Paleolithic Age, Mesolithic Age, Neolithic Age, Chalcolithic Age)

Ancient India History :- Paleolithic Age, Mesolithic Age, Neolithic Age, Chalcolithic Age

Quaternary Age

- Evolution of its crust shows four stages, 4th stage being Quaternary, which comprises of:

 *Pleistocene (20 Lakh – 10000 years)

 *Holocene   (10000 – Present)

Pleistocene Age

 *Roughly dressed stone tools

 *Crude chipping

 *No knowledge of Cultivation

 *Solely living on hunting

 *Lived in rock-shelters

“Also known as Paleolithic age or Ice age or Old Stone Age & divided into 3 ages”

 Early/ Lower Paleolithic Age     

 *5 Lakh – 50000 BC

 *Tools → Cleavers, Choppers, Axes

 Middle Paleolithic Age      

 *50000 – 40000 BC

 *Flakes Tools → Blades, Pointers, Borers & Scrapers

 Upper Paleolithic Age      

 *40000 – 10000 BC

 *Climate became comparatively warm

 *Marked the appearance of new flint industries

 *Men of modern types ( Homo-sapiens)

Bhimbetka Rock Shelters

 *Bhimbetka rock shelters are located in Raisen District of Madhya Pradesh, 45 km south of Bhopal at the southern edge of the Vindhyachal hills.

 *These served as shelters for Paleolithic age man for more than 1 lakh years.

 *This is the most exclusive Paleolithic site in India which contains the rock carvings and paintings.

 *These paintings belong to the Paleolithic, Mesolithic ages, Chalcolithic, earlyhistoric and even medieval times.

- Bhimbetka is a World heritage Site. Please note that it was earlier considered to be a Buddhist site and was later recognized as Paleolithic site by Vishnu Shridhar Wakankar who is now also called “father of rock art in India “. Bhimbetka Rock shelters were included in the world heritage list in 1970

Holocene: Mesolithic Age (9000 – 4000 BC)

 *Marked by phenomenal changes in climate as climate became comparatively warm & dry which brought significant changes in flora & fauna and made it possible for humans to move to new areas.

 *Characteristic tools of this Age: Microliths

 *Transitional Phase between Paleolithic & Neolithic Age

 *People mostly lived on Hunting, Fishing & Food gathering; At later stage also domesticated animals

 *Rock Paintings from Paleolithic & Mesolithic age have been found at Bhimbetka caves ( Painted birds, animals & humans)

Holocene: Neolithic Age (5000 – 1800 BC)

 *Earliest farming communities → Characterized by cultivation of plants & domestication of animals

 *Earliest evident of Neolithic culture have been found at Mehragarh on bank of river Bolan (Baluchistan) 7000 BC showing beginning of agriculture & domestication of animals.

 *Pottery 1st appeared in this phase → Black burnished ware + Course Grey ware pottery for cooking

 *Important Places : Gufkral ( Cave of Potters) & Burzahom ( Place of Birch)

 *Dog burial with the master → Special feature of Burzahom

Holocene: Chalcolithic Age (1800 – 1000 BC)

 *Cultivation & cattle rearing along with established the knowledge of crop rotation (@ Inamgaon) ,

 *Knowledge of Irrigation & Harvesting

 *Excavation reveals structures like Granaries, Embankment & Fortification

 *Mud houses made of mud in circular & rectangular pattern along with mud chulha

 *Culture was limited from Udaipur to Malwa & Maharashtra

 *Famous Pottery of this age → Black on Red ware

Computer (Computer Notes on Database Management System)

Computer Notes on Database Management System

Database: A database contains a collection of related items or facts arranged in a specific structure.

DBMS: DBMS is the acronym of Database Management System.It is a collection of interrelated data and a set of programs to access this data in a convenient and efficient way. It controls the organization, storage, retrieval, security and integrity of data in a database.

The information contained in a database is represented on two levels:

• Data (which is large and is being frequently modified)
• Structure of data (which is small and stable in time)

Features of Database

• Faithfulness: The design and implementation should be faithful to the requirements.
• Avoid Redundancy: This value is important because redundancy.
• Simplicity: Simplicity requires that the design and implementation avoid introducing more elements than are absolutely necessary.
• Right kind of element: Attributes are easier to implement but entity sets are relationships are necessary to ensure that the right kind of element is introduced.

Types of Database:

• Centralized Database: All data is located at a single site.

• Distributed Database: The database is stored on several computer.

Users of a DBMS

Database Administrator (DBA): DBA takes care of the administrative tasks of DBMS as the name suggests and his major responsibilities are given below.

• Management of information
• Liaison with users
• Enforcing security and integrity rules
• Database backup and recovery
• Monitoring database performance

Database designers:

• Person responsible for preparing external schemas for applications, identifying and integrating user needs into a conceptual (or community or enterprise) schema.

Application programmers:

• Application programmers write programs to access/insert/update/delete data from/to database by making use of the various database components.

End users:

• Users who query and update the database through fixed programs (invoked by non-programmer users) e.g., banking.

Advantages of a DBMS :

• Data independence
• Reduced data redundancy
• Increased security
• Better flexibility
• Effective data sharing
• Enforces integrity constraints
• Enables backup and recovery

Most important term about database:

Fields:- Each piece of  information in the address book is stored in its own location called a field.

Records:- One full set of fields that is all the related information about one person or object is called a record.

Tables:- A complete colleciton of records makes a table.

Levels of Data Abstraction: There are three levels of data abstraction as given below

• Physical Level: It is lowest level of abstraction and describes how the data are actually stored and complex low level data structures in detail.
• Logical Level: It is the next higher level of abstraction and describes what data are stored and what relationships exist among those data. At the logical level, each such record is described by a type definition and the interrelationship of these record types is defined as well. Database administrators usually work at this level of abstraction.
• View Level: It is the highest level of abstraction and describes only part of the entire database and hides the details of the logical level.

          View Level …Defined by User 

Difference between File system & DBMS

File System

• File system is a collection of data. Any management with the file system, user has to write the procedures
• File system gives the details of the data representation and Storage of data.
• In File system storing and retrieving of data cannot be done efficiently.
• Concurrent access to the data in the file system has many problems like reading the file while other deleting some information, updating some information
• File system doesn’t provide crash recovery mechanism.eg. While we are entering some data into the file if System crashes then content of the file is lost.
• Protecting a file under file system is very difficult.

DBMS

• It  is a collection of data and user is not required to write the procedures for managing the database.
• DBMS provides an abstract view of data that hides the details.
• It is efficient to use since there are wide varieties of sophisticated techniques to store and retrieve the data.
• It takes care of Concurrent access using some form of locking.
• DBMS has crash recovery mechanism, DBMS protects user from the effects of system failures.
• DBMS has a good protection mechanism.

Working with a Database:

The DBMS interface presents the user with data and the tools required to work with the data.

• Creating tables: The first step in building any database is to create one or more tables. As we know tables hold the raw data that the DBMS will work with.
• Entering and editing data: It allows you to create or edit a data entry form.
• viewing data: The way data appears on screen contributes to how well users can work with it.
• Querying the database: A query is a more powerful type of filter that can gather information from multiple tables in a relational database.
• Sorting records: Sorting arranges records according to the contents of one or more fields.
• Generating reports: A report is printed information that, like a query result, is assembled by gathering data based on user supplied criteria.                           

Schema: A schema is also known as database schema. It is a logical design of the database and a database instance is a snapshot of the data in the database at a given instant of time. A relational schema consists of a list of attributes and their corresponding domains.

Types of Schemas: It can be classified into three parts, according to the levels of abstraction.

• Physical/Internal Schema: Describes the database design at the physical level.
• Logical/Conceptual Schema/Community User View: Describes the database design at the logical level.
• Sub-schemas /View/External Schema: Describes different views of the database views may be queried combined in queries with base relations, used to define other views in general not updated freely.

Spoken English (Bank & SSC - Important Vocabulary 141 to 149)

Bank & SSC - Important Vocabulary 141

1. Abhor(v)

Hindi Meaning : घृणा करना, नफरत करना

English Meaning: to detest, hate

synonyms-despise, detest

use- She abhorred all forms of bigotry.

2. Abject(adj)

Hindi Meaning : अधम, कमीना, दयनीय

English Meaning: wretched; lacking pride.

synonyms-wretched, dishonour

use- One the streets of New York, the homeless live in abject poverty, huddling in doorways to find shelter from thewind.
 

3. Abjure(v)

Hindi Meaning : त्यागना, अस्वीकार करना

English Meaning: to renounce upon oath.

synonyms- give up, renege

use- He abjured his allegiance to the king.

4. Ablution(N)

Hindi Meaning : अपमार्जन, अभिषेक, प्रक्षालन

English Meaning : washing.

synonyms- cleansing, lavation

use- His daily ablutions were accompanied by loud noises that he humorously labeled “Opera in the Bath.”

5. Abnegation(N)

Hindi Meaning : अस्वीकरण, अस्वीकार, आत्मत्याग

English Meaning : renunciation; self-sacrifice.

synonyms- forbearance, refusal

use- Though Rudolph and Duchess Flavia loved one another, their love was doomed, for she had to wed the king; their act of abnegation was necessary to preserve the kingdom.

6. Abolish(V)

Hindi Meaning : समाप्त करना, तोड़ना

English Meaning : to cancel; put an end to.

synonyms- abrogate, annul

use- The president of the college refused to abolish the physical education requirement.

7. Abominable(adj)

Hindi Meaning : घटिया, घिनौना, अरुचिकर

English Meaning : detestable; extremely unpleasant; very bad.

synonyms- awful, horrid

use- Many liked John until she learned he was also dating Susan; then she called him an abominable young man, with abominable taste in women.
 

8. Abominate(V)

Hindi Meaning : घृणा करना, बहुत नफ़रत करना

English Meaning : to loathe; hate.

synonyms- dislike, abhor

use- Hoses scolded the idol worshippers in the tribe because he abominated the custom.
 

9. Aboriginal(adj)

Hindi Meaning : आदिवासी, पुराना

English Meaning : being the first of its kind in a region; primitive; native.

synonyms- ancient, native

use- Her studies of the primitive art forms of the aboriginal Indians were widely reported in the scientific journals.

10. Abortive(adj)

Hindi Meaning : अकालिक, कच्चा

English Meaning : unsuccessful; fruitless.

synonyms- failed, futile

use- Attacked by armed troops, the Chinese students had to abandon their abortive attempt to democratize Beijing peaceful.

Bank & SSC - Important Vocabulary 142

1. Hymn – भजन

Meaning – a religious song or poem of praise to God or a god.

Synonyms – religious song, anthem, song of praise, canticle, chorale, psalm, carol, chant; antiphon, introit, doxology, spiritual, paean, plainsong; rarelay, miserere.

Usage – “a Hellenistic hymn to Apollo”

2. Hover – मंडराना

Meaning – remain in one place in the air.

Synonyms – be suspended, be poised, hang, float, levitate, drift, fly, flutter

Usage – “Army helicopters hovered overhead”

3. Hoary – सफ़ेद

Meaning – greyish white.

Synonyms – greyish-white, grey, white, silver, silvery; frost-covered, frosty, rimy.

Usage – “hoary cobwebs”

4. Impale – कोंचना

Meaning – transfix or pierce with a sharp instrument.

Synonyms – stick, skewer, spear, spike, pin, transfix; pierce, stab, run through, bayonet, harpoon, lance; gore, disembowel; puncture, perforate; raretranspierce.

Usage – “his head was impaled on a pike and exhibited for all to see”

5. Infidel – बेवफ़ा

Meaning – a person who has no religion or whose religion is not that of the majority.

Synonyms – unbeliever, disbeliever, non-believer, heathen, pagan, idolater, idolatress, heretic, agnostic, atheist, non-theist, nihilist, apostate, freethinker, libertine, dissenter, nonconformist; archaicpaynim; rarenullifidian.

Usage – “a crusade against infidels and heretics”

6. Indictment – अभियोग

Meaning – a formal charge or accusation of a serious crime.

Synonyms – charge, accusation, arraignment, citation, summons; allegation, imputation; plaint; impeachment; informalbeef; archaicinculpation.

Usage – “an indictment for conspiracy”

7. Lesion – चोट

Meaning – a region in an organ or tissue which has suffered damage through injury or disease, such as a wound, ulcer, abscess, or tumour.

Synonyms – wound, injury, bruise, abrasion, contusion, scratch, scrape, cut, gash, laceration, tear, puncture; ulcer, ulceration, sore, running sore, abscess, carbuncle, canker; mark; technicaltrauma.

Usage – “he lost a lot of weight and the purple-black lesions on his skin began to spread”

8. Mangy

Meaning – in poor condition; shabby.

Synonyms – scruffy, moth-eaten, shabby, worn, unkempt, shoddy, sorry, dirty, squalid, filthy, sleazy, seedy; informaltatty, the worse for wear, scuzzy, grungy, yucky; informalgrotty; informalraggedy

Usage – “a girl in a mangy fur coat”

9. Modish – फै़शनवाला

Meaning – conforming to or following what is currently popular and fashionable.

Synonyms – fashionable, stylish, smart, chic, modern, contemporary, designer, all the rage, in vogue, trendsetting, voguish, up to the minute; à la mode; informaltrendy, cool, with it, in, now, hip, happening, snazzy, natty, nifty

Usage – “it seems sad that such a scholar should feel compelled to use this modish jargon”

10. Memoir – इतिहास

Meaning – a historical account or biography written from personal knowledge.

Synonyms – account, historical account, history, record, chronicle, annal(s), commentary, narrative, story, report, portrayal, depiction, sketch, portrait, life, life story, profile, biography.

Usage – “in 1924 she published a short memoir of her husband”

Bank & SSC - Important Vocabulary 143

1. Abscond(V)
Hindi Meaning : फरार होना
English Meaning- run away
synonyms- vanish, leave
use- His life was safe if either of these men could be persuaded to abscond.

2. Anguish(N)
Hindi Meaning : पीड़ा, शोक
English Meaning- severe upset
synonyms- heartbreak, distress
use- I had cast off all feeling, subdued all anguish to riot in the excess of my despair.

3. Inevitably(Adv)
Hindi Meaning : अनिवार्य रूप से
English Meaning- unavoidably
synonyms- surely, inescapably
use-That to attempt it, would be inevitably to be torn into a quick eternity.

4. Camouflage(N)
Hindi Meaning : छद्मावरण, छिपाने का साधन
English Meaning- disguise
synonyms- concealment, deceit
use-As for the machines themselves, they scorned the use of camouflage

5. Sanctum(N)
Hindi Meaning : पवित्र जगह, मन्दिर, निजी कमरा
English Meaning- sanctuary
synonyms- chancel, altar
use-I summon my companion, who joins me, and we enter our sanctum.

6. Prevalent(Adj)
Hindi Meaning : प्रचलित, चालू
English Meaning- widespread
synonyms- extensive, rampant
use-Measles is the most prevalent infectious disease of childhood.

7. Edgy(Adj)
Hindi Meaning : तेज, नुकीला
English Meaning- nervous
synonyms- restless, anxious
use-He had scarcely closed his eyes the night before, and he felt all edgy.

8. Cataclysmic(Adj)
Hindi Meaning : प्रलय
English Meaning- destructive
synonyms- calamitous, ruinous
use-At once it seemed as if some cataclysmic upheaval were in progress.

9. Dismay(N)
Hindi Meaning : निराशा, बेचैनी, भय
English Meaning- Distress
synonyms- apprehension, chargin
use-This was said in such a decided tone that March looked at Mary in dismay.

10. Propensity(N)
Hindi Meaning : झुकाव, इच्छा, उपयुक्त
English Meaning- inclination
synonyms- penchant, tendency
use-No more is needed to arouse his propensity to thrust with his back.

Bank & SSC - Important Vocabulary 144

1. Orifice  – छिद्र
Meaning – an opening, particularly one in the body such as a nostril or the anus.
Synonyms – opening, hole, aperture, crack, slot, slit, cleft, cranny, chink, gap, space, vent, breach, break, rent, fissure, mouth, crevice, rift, perforation, pore.

2. Genial – उर्वर
Meaning – friendly and cheerful.
Synonyms – friendly, affable, cordial, congenial, amiable, warm, easy-going, approachable, sympathetic, well disposed, good-natured, good-humoured, cheerful, cheery, neighbourly, hospitable, companionable, comradely, bluff, easy to get along with; sociable, convivial, outgoing, extrovert, extroverted, gregarious.
Usage – “our genial host”

3. Petulant – ढीठ
Meaning – (of a person or their manner) childishly sulky or bad-tempered.
Usage – “he was moody and petulant”

4. Propinquity  – पड़ोस
Meaning – the state of being close to someone or something; proximity.
Synonyms – proximity, closeness, nearness, adjacency; rarecontiguity, contiguousness, vicinity, vicinage.
Usage – “he kept his distance as though afraid propinquity might lead him into temptation”

5. Rabid  – विक्षिप्त
Meaning – having or proceeding from an extreme or fanatical support of or belief in something.
Synonyms – extreme, fanatical, overzealous, over-enthusiastic, extremist, violent, maniacal, wild, passionate, fervent, diehard, uncompromising; intolerant, unreasonable, illiberal, bigoted, prejudiced, biased, partisan, one-sided; informalraving, gung-ho; informalswivel-eyed; literaryperfervid.
Usage – “the show’s small but rabid fan base”

6. Spate  – झोंक
Meaning – a large number of similar things coming in quick succession.
Synonyms – series, succession, run, cluster, string, outbreak, rash, epidemic, explosion, plague, wave, flurry, rush, flood, deluge, torrent, outpouring.
Usage – “a spate of attacks on holidaymakers”

7. Strand – किनारा
Meaning – the shore of a sea, lake, or large river.
Synonyms – seashore, shore, beach, sands, foreshore, shoreline; coast, seaside, seaboard, waterfront, front, waterside, water’s edge; technicallittoral; plage.
Usage – “a heron glided to rest on a pebbly strand”

8. Solace  – सांत्वन
Meaning – comfort or consolation in a time of great distress or sadness.
Synonyms – comfort, consolation, cheer, support, relief.
Usage – “she sought solace in her religion”

9. Twinge  – आवेश
Meaning – a sudden, sharp localized pain.
Synonyms – pain, sharp pain, shooting pain, stab of pain, spasm, ache, throb; cramp, stitch; archaicthroe.
Usage – “he felt a twinge in his knee”

10. Wager – दांव
Meaning – more formal term for bet.
Synonyms – bet, gamble, lay a wager, place/make/lay a bet, lay odds, put money on; stake, pledge, risk, venture, hazard, chance, speculate; informalpunt; informalput one’s shirt on.
Usage – “I’ll wager that there will be no trace of them

Bank & SSC - Important Vocabulary 145

1. Avalanche(N)
Hindi Meaning : हिमस्खलन, अवधाव
English Meaning: Falling large mass
synonyms- barrage, flood
use-A fair-sized landslide, indeed an avalanche, thundered down.
 
2. Deteriorate(Adj)
Hindi Meaning : बिगाड़ना
English Meaning: run down
synonyms- ramshackle, rickety
use-If all the water be expelled, the quality of the flour is deteriorated.

3.Impetus(N)
Hindi Meaning : प्रेरणा, आवेग
English Meaning: stimulus
synonyms- impulse, catalyst
use-This question arises, no doubt, from the comparison of life to an impetus.
 
4. Deposition(N)
Hindi Meaning : निक्षेप, अमानत
English Meaning: dethroning
synonyms- impeachment, degradation
use-Not that he had any doubt about the deposition of Marie Pascal.
 
5. Barrage(N)
Hindi Meaning : आड़, गोलाबारी
English Meaning: weapon fire
synonyms- bombardment, volley
use-Meanwhile our entire front was advancing, following the barrage waves.

6. Adversary(N)
Hindi Meaning : शत्रु, प्रतिवादी
English Meaning: opponent
synonyms- attacker, antagonist
use-To reach this standard we must try to think the best of our adversaries.
 
7. Extermination(N)
Hindi Meaning : उन्मूलन, तबाही
English Meaning: annihilation
synonyms- elimination, slaughter
use-He realized that he must at once devise a better method of extermination.
 
8. Mediocre(Adj)
Hindi Meaning : औसत, मध्यम
English Meaning: commonplace
synonyms- middling, humdrum
use-Very good for mediocre people, I dare say; but it wouldn't suit me.

9. Recital(N)
Hindi Meaning : वादन, पाठ
English Meaning: Narrative 
synonyms- concert, presentation
use-She had scarcely finished this recital when she entered on another.

10. Augment(V)
Hindi Meaning : आगम, बढ़ाना
English Meaning: make greater
synonyms- amplify, boost
use-All States seek with emulation to augment the national industry.

Bank & SSC - Important Vocabulary 146

1. Plebiscite – जनमत-संग्रह
Meaning – the direct vote of all the members of an electorate on an important public question such as a change in the constitution.
Synonyms – vote, referendum, ballot, poll.
Usage – “a plebiscite for the approval of constitutional reforms”

2. Souvenir – स्मृति चिन्ह
Meaning – a thing that is kept as a reminder of a person, place, or event.
Synonyms – memento, keepsake, reminder, remembrance, token, memorial; testimonial, trophy, relic; memorabilia; archaicmemorandum.
Usage – “the recording provides a souvenir of a great production”

3. Regalia – इनाम
Meaning – the emblems or insignia of royalty, especially the crown, sceptre, and other ornaments used at a coronation.
Usage – “the Bishop of Florence in full regalia”

4. Decanter – शीशे की सुराही
Meaning – a stoppered glass container into which wine or spirit is decanted.

5. Quisling – ग़द्दार
Meaning – a traitor who collaborates with an enemy force occupying their country.
Synonyms – collaborator, fraternizer, colluder, sympathizer; traitor, turncoat, betrayer, informer, back-stabber, double-crosser, double-dealer, renegade, defector, deserter, apostate, Judas, snake in the grass, fifth columnist; informaltwo-timer; informaldog.
Usage – “he had the Quisling owner of the factory arrested”

6. Teetotaler – जो नशे में हो
Meaning – a person who never drinks alcohol.
Synonyms – non-drinker, abstainer; informalwowser; rareRechabite, nephalist, pussyfoot, white ribboner

7. Virtuoso – कलाप्रवीण व्यक्ति
Meaning – a person highly skilled in music or another artistic pursuit.
Synonyms – genius, expert, master, master hand, artist, maestro, prodigy, marvel, adept, past master, specialist, skilled person, professional, doyen, authority, veteran; star, champion; wunderkind; informalhotshot, wizard, wiz, whizz, whizz-kid, alpha geek, ninja, buff, pro, ace, something else, something to shout about, something to write home about; informaldab hand; informalmaven, crackerjack.
Usage – “a celebrated clarinet virtuoso”

8. Axiom – स्वयंसिद्ध
Meaning – a statement or proposition which is regarded as being established, accepted, or self-evidently true.
Synonyms – accepted truth, general truth, dictum, truism, principle; proposition, postulate; maxim, saying, adage, aphorism; rareapophthegm, gnome.
Usage – “the axiom that sport builds character”

9. Quip – ताना
Meaning – a witty remark.
Synonyms – joke, witty remark, witticism, jest, pun, sally, pleasantry, epigram, aphorism; repartee, banter; bon mot; informalone-liner, gag, crack, wisecrack, funny.
Usage – “Peter ate heartily with a quip about being a condemned man”

10. Impregnable – अभेद्य
Meaning – (of a fortified position) unable to be captured or broken into.
Synonyms – invulnerable, impenetrable, unattackable, unassailable, inviolable, secure, strong, stout, safe, well fortified, well defended; invincible, unconquerable, unbeatable, indestructible.
Usage – “a massive and impregnable fortress”

Bank & SSC - Important Vocabulary 147

1. Intrinsic(Adj)
Hindi Meaning - स्वाभाविक, प्राकृतिक
English Meaning-  basic
synonyms- innate, elemental
use- As in other minerals, value has both its intrinsic and extrinsic elements.

2. Altruistic(Adj)
Hindi Meaning - परोपकारी, परहितवादी
English Meaning- unselfish
synonyms- humanitarian, benevolent
use- In no respect was it more so than in the genesis of the altruistic emotions.

3. Adhere(V)
Hindi Meaning - चिपकना, पालन करना
English Meaning- conform to
synonyms- comply, observe
use- Stir frequently to prevent the macaroni from adhering to the bottom.

4. Frailty(N)
Hindi Meaning - कमज़ोरी, दोष
English Meaning- weakness
synonyms- defect, imperfection
use- The interval was passed with the young lady of frailty and beauty.

5. Waiver(N)
Hindi Meaning - अधित्याग, त्याग
English Meaning- giving up
synonyms- remission, refusal
use- She implored a waiver of the forfeiture in her and young Walter's favour.

6. Generals(N)
Hindi Meaning - अविशेषक, जनरल
English Meaning- administration
synonyms- board, committee
use- On the 22nd the action languished and the generals consulted.

7. Amicable(Adj)
Hindi Meaning - मित्रवत, मैत्रीपूर्ण, सौहार्दपूर्ण
English Meaning- Friendly
synonyms- cordial, peaceful
use- The two positions were abandoned, and the Committee separated on amicable terms.

8. Strayed(Adj)
Hindi Meaning - भटका हुआ, बहका हुआ
English Meaning- wandered
synonyms- roam, vagrant
use- During the day, the cattle, in feeding, had strayed to some distance over the plain.

9. Swoop(V)
Hindi Meaning - छापा, झपट्टा
English Meaning- descend quickly
synonyms- fall, plunge
use- I swiftly jerked the elevator for a swoop up as a rifle cracked.

10. Exuberant(Adj)
Hindi Meaning - उर्वर, उल्लासपूर्ण, विपुल
English Meaning- energetic
synonyms- animated, lively
use- He had secured the ransom and fairly smiled with exuberant joy.

Bank & SSC - Important Vocabulary 148

1. Cardinally – प्रधानता
Meaning – of the greatest importance; fundamental.
Synonyms – fundamental, basic, main, chief, primary, prime, principal, premier, first, leading, capital, paramount, pre-eminent; important, major, foremost, top, topmost, greatest, highest, key; essential, vital, crucial, intrinsic, integral, elemental, rudimentary, root, radical.
Usage – “two cardinal points must be borne in mind”

2. Better off – किस्मत का धनी
Meaning – in a more desirable or advantageous position, especially in financial terms.
Usage – “the proposals would make her about £400 a year better off”

3. Oligopoly – अल्पाधिकार
Meaning – a state of limited competition, in which a market is shared by a small number of producers or sellers.

4. Wizard – जादूगर
Meaning – (in legends and fairy tales) a man who has magical powers.
Synonyms – sorcerer, warlock, male witch, magus, (black) magician, necromancer, occultist, enchanter; pishogue; archaicmage; rarethaumaturge, thaumaturgist
Usage – “the wizard had cast a spell over them”

5. Vistas – योजना
Meaning – a pleasing view.
Synonyms – view, prospect, panorama, aspect, perspective, spectacle, sight; scenery, landscape, seascape, riverscape, townscape, cityscape, snowscape; archaicoutlook.
Usage – “sweeping lawns and landscaped vistas”

6. Ingenuity – सरलता
Meaning – the quality of being clever, original, and inventive.
Synonyms – inventiveness, creativity, imagination, originality, innovation, resourcefulness, enterprise, insight, inspiration, perceptiveness, perception, intuition, flair, finesse, artistry, genius; cleverness, intelligence, brilliance, mastery, talent, skill; sharpness, astuteness, acumen, acuity, sharp-wittedness, quick-wittedness, quickness.
Usage – “considerable ingenuity must be employed in writing software”

7. Oblivious – भुलक्कड़
Meaning – not aware of or concerned about what is happening around one.
Synonyms – unaware, unconscious, heedless, unmindful, insensible, unheeding, ignorant, blind, deaf, unsuspecting, unobservant, disregardful, unconcerned, impervious, unaffected, insensitive, indifferent, detached, removed; rareincognizant.
Usage – “she became absorbed, oblivious to the passage of time”

8. Paucity – कमी
Meaning – the presence of something in only small or insufficient quantities or amounts.
Usage – “a paucity of information”

9. Euphoria – उत्साह
Meaning – a feeling or state of intense excitement and happiness.
Synonyms – elation, happiness, joy, joyousness, delight, glee, excitement, exhilaration, animation, jubilation, exultation; ecstasy, bliss, rapture, rhapsody, rhapsodies, intoxication.
Usage – “in his euphoria, he had become convinced he could defeat them”

10. Percolate – चूना
Meaning – (of a liquid or gas) filter gradually through a porous surface or substance.
Synonyms – filter, drain, drip, ooze, seep, trickle, dribble, strain, leak, leach; rarefiltrate, transude.
Usage – “the water percolating through the soil may leach out minerals”

Bank & SSC - Important Vocabulary 149

1. Inflammatory(Adj)
Hindi Meaning - भड़कानेवाला, उत्तेजक
English Meaning- instigative
synonyms-angering, demagogic
use- Almost every article produced the most inflammatory disputes.

2. Instigate(V)
Hindi Meaning - उत्तेजित करना, उकसाना, भड़काना
English Meaning- influence
synonyms-abet, prompt
use- The bards have ever been foremost in instigating insurrections in Wales.

3. Indictment(N)
Hindi Meaning - अभियोग, कलंक
English Meaning- allegation
synonyms- detention, prosecution
use- Suffice it to say, that there were several counts in his indictment.

4. Envisaged(V)
Hindi Meaning - उल्लिखित, परिकल्पित
English Meaning- picture in one's mind
synonyms- conceive, externalize
use- I envisaged then this tiny Moon-crater, the scene of this battle we were waging.

5. Scathing(Adj)
Hindi Meaning - नुकसान पहुंचाने वाला, तीखा
English Meaning- critical in remarks
synonyms- caustic, mordant
use- Scathing as some of the portraits are, the writer is by no means merely cynical.

6. Formidable(Adj)
Hindi Meaning - दुर्जेय, भयानक, साहस तोड़ने वाला 
English Meaning- horrible
synonyms- dangerous, dreadful
use- The fortifications were indeed of a most formidable character.

7. Ordnance(N)
Hindi Meaning - तोपखाना, युद्ध सामग्री
English Meaning- munitions
synonyms- arms, bombs
use- Also, an old piece of ordnance throwing a ball of one or two pounds.

8. Fray(N) 
Hindi Meaning - झगड़ा, दंगा
English Meaning- fight
synonyms- battle, brawl
use- His father died suddenly, from a stab that he received in a fray.

9. Dissemination(N)
Hindi Meaning - प्रचार, फैलाव
English Meaning- distribution
synonyms- circulation, diffusion
use- A dissemination of characteristics; moral and physical resemblance to his mother.

10. Provenance(N)
Hindi Meaning - उत्पत्ति, उत्पत्तिस्थान
English Meaning- birthplace
synonyms- derivation, inception
use-Day after day I wondered about its provenance, but your letter dispels the mystery.