History (Medieval India History :- Mughal Empire)

Medieval India History :- Mughal Empire

Babur (1526 – 1530)

 *Mughal Empire was founded by Babar

 *1st battle of Panipat (21st April 1526)

 - B/w Babur & Ibrahim Lodi

 - Lodi was Killed

 - Babur occupied Delhi

 *Babar sent his son Humayu to seize Agra; & Claimed himself “ Emperor of Hindustan”

 *Battle of Khanua (Near Agra →  1527)

 - Babur V/S Rana Sanga of Mewar

 - Babur won the battle & assumed the title of Ghazi

 *Babur wrote his memoirs in “Tuzuk – i – Baburi in Turki language & died in 1530

Humayu (1530 – 1540)

 *Eldest son of Babur; means fortunate but was most unfortunate ruler of Mughal empire

 *Gave Kabul & Kandhar to Kamran; Sambhal to Aksari & Alwar to Hindal (All 3 his brothers)

Humayun  →  Busy fighting with Afgans (Sher khan / Sher shah) in east, got the news that Bahadur shah of Gujrat was advancing

towards Delhi  →  Hence made treaty with Sher shah

- Humayu captured Gujrat from Bahadur shah & made Aksari its governor, but soon Bahadur shah recovered it from Aksari who fled from their

Battle of Chausa (1539)

 *Between Humayu & Sher Shah

 *Sher Shah destroyed Mughal army

 *Humayu fled from there

Battle of Kannauj or Bilgram (1540)

 *Between Humayu & Sher Shah

 *Brothers’ dint supported Humayu, hence he fought alone

 *Humayu was thoroughly defeated by Sher shah

 *Result →   Humayu became exile for next 15 years 

Sur interregnum (1540 – 1555)

 *Founded by Sher Shah; became ruler of Delhi in 1540

 *Formed 4 ministries for central administration viz.

 - Diwan – i – Wazirat   →  Headed by Wazir (Incharge of finance & revenue)

 - Diwan – i – Ariz  →  Headed by Military Incharge

 - Diwan – i – Rasalat  → Headed by Foreign minister

 - Diwan – i – Insha  →  Headed by Communication minister

Administration

 *Sher Shah empire was divided in 47 Sarkars with

 - Chief Shiqdar to maintain law & order in each sarkar

 - Chief Munsif as Judge in each Sarkar

 *Each Sarkar was divided into Parganas with each pargana consisted of

 - Shiqdars  →  Military officer

 - Amin  →  Land revenue officer

 - Fotedar  →  Treasurer

 - Karkuns →  Accountant

Architecture

 *Introduced new silver coins called ‘Dam’ which were in circulation till 1835

 *Laid foundation of 4 important highways & constituted rest houses alongside highways viz.

 - Sonargaon to Sind

 - Agra to Burhampur

 - Jodhpur to Chittor

 - Lahore to Multan

 *Built a new city on banks of river Yamuna near Delhi (Purana quila & its mosque are remains of the same)

 *Built Mausoleum at Sasaram →  Considered one of the masterpiece of Indian Architecture

 *Patronized Malik Muhammad Jayasi who wrote famous Hindi work Padmavat during his reign

Humayun (1555 – 1556)

 *Humayun defeated Afgans in 1555

 *Died in 1556 after falling from the staircase of his library 

Akbar (1556 – 1605)

 *During 1st five years of Akbars reign, Bairam khan acted as his regent & consolidated Mughal empire

 *2nd battle of Panipat

 - Between Akbar & Hemu (Commander of Afgans)

 - Akbar emerged victorious with the help of Bairam Khan

 *Akbar married Rajput princess Jodha, daughter of Raja Bhairomal of Amber

 *This marriage became a turning point in the history of Mughals, as Rajputs supported them now

 *Many Rajputs like Raja Man singh & Raja Bhagwan Das were given senior position in Akbar’s court

 *Battle of Haldighati, 1576

 - Between Akbar and Maharana Pratap of Mewar

 - Mughals under the leadership of Raja Man singh defeated Rana Pratap of Mewar

 *Akbar was very tolerant towards religious policies →  abolished pilgrim tax & later Jiziya

 *He formed a strong alliance b/w Mughals & Rajputs which ensured peace in Rajasthan & Northern India

Akbars’ Religious Touch

 *Early contact with Sufi saints

 *Teachings from his teacher Abdul Latif

 *His marriage with Rajput princess

 *His association with intellectual giant like Shaikh Mubarak & his 2 sons – Abul Faizi & Abul Fazal

 *After marrying Jodha Bai, he abolished pilgrimage tax & Jiziga

 *Allowed his Hindu wife to worship her own God

 *He was a pious Muslim in his early life but later became a skeptic one

 *Constructed Ibadat khana (house of worship where scholars from all religion meet to discuss religious policies) at his new capital Fatehpur sikri

 *Invited learned scholars from all religions to discuss religious policies

 *Disliked the interference of Muslim Ulemas in political matters

 *In 1579, He issued infallibility decree & asserted his religious powers

 *In 1582, he promulgated a new religion “Din – i – Ilahi” or divine faith in one god

 *Din – i – Ilahi contained good points of all the religions & uphold no dogma

 *Din – i – Ilahi mainly aimed to bridge gap b/w all religions (Only 15 followers joined including Birbal)

Akbars’ Land Revenue system

 *Land revenue system of Akbar was known as Zabti / Bandobast system

 *Further modified by Raja Todarmal, now known as Dahsala system which included

 - Measurement of land

 - Revenue fixed on average yield of last 10 years

 - Land divided into four categories viz.

Polaj :- Cultivated every year

Parauti :- Cultivated every 2 years

Chachar :- Cultivated every 3 – 4 years

Banjar :- Cultivated every 5 years

Mansabdari system of Akbar

 *Under this system, every officer was assigned a Rank (Mansab)

 *Lowest officer got 10 coins & highest officers (Nobles) got 5000 coins for their services

 *Includes all public services except Judiciary

 *Ranks were divided into 2 categories, namely

 - Zat  →  Described the personal status of a person

- Sawar   →  Number of cavalry man a person is required to maintain

Jahangir (1605 – 1627)

 *Prince Salim succeeded the throne with the title Jahangir (Conqueror of the world)

 *Witness rebellions from his son Khusaro, but was defeated & imprisoned

 *Beheaded 5th Sikh Guru Arjun dev

 *In 1611, Married Mehrunnisa (Nurjaha → Light of the world)

 *Wrote his Autobiography →  Tuzuk – i – Jahagiri

Shahjaha (1627 – 1658)

 *Married Mumtaj (Banu Begum)

 *Conquered Deccan (Bijapur & Golkunda and put it under the leadership of his son Aurangzeb)

 *Later, Aurangzeb killed his 3 brothers & confined Shahjaha to female apartments in Agra fort

 *Though Aurangzeb never ill-treated Shahjaha

Aurangzeb (1658 – 1707)

 *Assumed the title Alamgir (or World Conqueror)

 *To contain Marathas (Shivaji), he attacked Golkunda & Bijapur (Deccan Shias)

 *Though Aurangzeb defeated them but it removed the only boundary b/w Marathas & Mughals

 *According to JN Sarkar, Deccan ulcer ruined Aurangzeb

Religious Policies of Aurangzeb

 *Very orthodox & staunch Muslim; tried to change India into an Islamic state

 *Created separate departments to enforce moral codes called ‘Muhtasib’

 - Prohibited drinking, cultivation & use of Bhang & drugs

 - Forbid music in Mughal court, Dismissed royal astrologers & astronomers

 - Discontinued practice of Jharoka darshan

 - Discontinued celebration of Dussehra

 *Destroyed Hindu temples & banned construction of them

 *Reimposed Jiziya & pilgrimage tax (in 1679)

 *Stopped celebration of Muharram (Not tolerant towards other Muslim sects)

 *Was against Sikhs & executed 9th Sikh Guru Teg Bahadur, which resulted transformation of sikhs into warring community

- His religious policies turned Rajputs, Sikhs, Marathas, Jats & Satnamis against him & hence became the sole reason for decline of Mughal Empire

Personality & Character of Aurangzeb

 *Very simple in dressing & food; Very disciplined & industrious

 *Earned money for personal expenses by copying Quran & selling those copies

 *Did not consume wine, learned & proficient in Arabic & Persian language

 *Lover of books, strict follower of Islam

 *Daily Namaz for 5 times & strictly observed Ramzan

 *Overall an orthodox Muslim intolerant to other religions

“After Aurangzeb’s death Nadir shah looted Delhi & imprisoned new Mughal emperor in 1739″

Architecture under Mughals

Emperor :- Monument :- Place

Akbar :- Agra fort using Red Stone :- Agra
     
      :- Panch Mahal – build on the pattern of a Buddhist Vihara :- Fatehpur Sikri
     
      :- Jama masjid with gateway Buland Darwaza – On Gujrat’s victory :- Fatehpur Sikri
     
      :- Humayu Tomb – Precursor of Tajmahal :- Delhi

Jahangir :- Shalimar Bagh     Srinagar
   
     :- Akbar’s Tomb :- Sikandara near Agra
   
     :- Itimaddaulah Tomb (Pietra dura style by Nurjaha) :- Agra

- ShahjahaRed FortDelhiJama Masjid using Red stoneDelhiMoti MasjidAgraDiwan – i – amUnder Red Fort (Delhi)Diwan – i – KhasUnder Red Fort (Delhi)Nishat Bagh (By Asif khan,  Brother of Nurjaha)SrinagarAurangzebPinjore GardenLahoreMoti Masjid with white marbleDelhi

Painting & Music

 *Akbarnama was the main theme of Mughal paintings

 *Hamznama was the most important work of Mughals time consisting 1200 paintings

 *Tansen (From gwalior) was a great musician in Akbar’s court

Literature

 *Abul Fazal  →  Ain – i – Akbari , Akbarnama   (Persian Language)

 *Abul Faizi  →  Converted Mahabharata into Persian language (Leading poet of Akbar’s Court)

 *Abdul Hamid Lahori →  Padshah Nama (Shahjaha’s Court)

 *Inayat Khan  →  Shahjaha Naha (Shahjaha’s Court)

 *Dara Shikoh (Eldest son of Shahjaha) →  Converted Bhagvat Gita & Upanishads into Persian

Trivia

 *During 17th century, two new crops “Tobacco & Maize” were added

 *Potato & Chili came later in 18th century

 *Ghee & oils were cheaper; Salts & sugar were more expensive

History (Medieval India History :- Vijayanagar Empire (1336-1672))

Medieval India History :- Vijayanagar Empire (1336-1672)

 *Prominent languages →  Kannada, Telegu, Sanskrit

 *Consist of four major dynasties viz.

 - Sangam Dynasty

 - Saluva Dynasty

 - Tulva Dynasty

 - Aravidu Dynasty

Sangam Dynasty

 *Founded by Harihara & Bukka

 *Greatest Ruler Devaraya 2 →  Srirangam Copper Plate inscription ascribed to him

Saluva Dynasty

 *Founded by Saluva Narsimha

Tulva Dynasty

 *Founded by Vir Narsimha

 *Greatest Ruler Krishanadeva Raya

 - Friendly with Portuguese

 - Known as Andhra Bhoja

 - Patronized 8 eminent scholars in his court (Astadiggaja)

 - Greatest of them was Peddana (Also known as Andhra Kavita Pitamah)

Literature

 *Pedanna wrote Manucharitam, Harikatha saram (both in Telegu)

 *Krishanadeva Raya wrote : Amukhamaldaya (Telegu), Jambavti kalyanam + Ushaparinayam (Sanskrit)

Architecture by Krishanadeva Raya

 *Vitthalswami & Hazara ramswami temple @ vijayanagar @ Hamphi

 *Built city Nagalapuram in memory of her queen Nagaladevi

Points of Prominence (Vijayanagar Empire)

 *Sangam Dynasty →  Saivite with Chief Deity – Virupaksha

 *Other Dynasties  →  Vaisnavite (Saluva, Tuluva & Aravidu) mainly follower of Ramanujam

 *Tolerant towards other religions →  Borbosa referred to Religious freedom to everyone

 *Madurvijayam →  Written by Ganagadevi for Kumarkampana’s expedition of Madurai

 *Abdul Razzak (Persian traveler) gave an account of Vijayanagar Empire

- Vijaynagar empire was divided in to Mandalams (Headed by Mandaleshwara / nayaks), which was further divided into Nadus, which was further divided into Sthalas & finally into Gramas

Empire —- Mandalams —– Nadus —– Sthalas —– Grama

 *Land revenue was 1/6th of the produce

 *Gold coin → Varaha

 *Port →  Connanore (Malabar Coast)

Foreign Travelers

 *Ibn Batuta * *   →  Moroccan

 *Nicolo-de-Conti  →  Venetian

 *Abdul Razzak * →  Persian

 *Domingos Paes   →  Portuguese

Temple Building Style of Vijayanagar Empire

 *Vesara style of temple architecture → Tall gopurams with large kalyanmandapam along with pillars

 *Example →  Vradhraja & Ekam Parantha temple @ Kanchipuram

 *Famous Elephant chariot architecture belongs to Hampi Ruins

History (Medieval India History :- Sufism And Bhakti Movement)

Medieval India History :- Sufism And Bhakti Movement

Sufism

 *Originated in Persia & spread to India by 11th century

 *1st Sufi saint was Shaik ismail of Lahore

 *Most famous Sufi saint of India was Khwaja Muinuddin Chishti, who settled in Ajmer which became centre of his activities

 *His disciples were called Sufis of Chisti order →  Nizamuddin Aulia of Chisti order became a mighty spiritual force

 *Sufism stressed on Love & devotion as an effective & only mean of realization of God & attaining salvation

 *According to Sufism, Love of God meant love of humanity, They believed service to humanity equals service of God

 *Self-discipline was key to gain knowledge of God by perception

 *Sufism believed in inner purity not in rituals, they believed in brotherhood & in one God (Did not believe in class division)

 *According to them, one must have guidance of a Pir or Guru, without whom spiritual development is impossible

 *Sufism inculcated a spirit of tolerance among its followers

 *Sufism emphasized on Meditation, Good action, Repentance of sins, Performance of prayers, Pilgrimage, Fasting, Charity & Suppression of passions by ascetic practices

 *When Sufi movement was becoming popular in India, about the same time Bhakti cult was also gaining strength among Hindus.

 *The liberal & unorthodox features of Sufism had a profound influence on medieval Bhakti Saints

Bhakti Movement

900 AD  →  Shankaracharya

 *Born in Kaladi, Kerala

 *Followed doctrine of advaita / monoism (Non duality & oneness of God)

 *Faced reaction against his concept of Nirgunbrahamana (or God without attributes) due to emergence of idea of Sagunabrahamana (or God with attributes)

1200 AD  →  Ramanuja

 *Born in Sriperumbur, Chennai

 *Advocated Prabhattimarga (or path of self-surrender) to god

 *Preached philosophy of vishishtavaida; According to which God is Sagunbrahamana

 *Taught that God is an inner substance & rest are his attributes, Hence God, Soul & matter are real

 *According to him, creative process & all objects in creation are real, not illusionary as depicted by Shankaracharya

1300 AD  →  Madhava @ Kannada

 *Propagated the philosophy of Dvaita, Dualism of Jivatma & Parmatma

 *According to his philosophy, world is not an illusion but a reality & God, soul & matter are unique in nature

Nimbarka :- Propagated Dvaitaadvaita :- Preachers of Vaishnavite Bhakti in Telangana region

Vallabhacharya :- Propagated Shudhhaadvaita – Pushti marg

Surdas :- Disciple of Vallabhacharya :- Popularised Krishna cult in North India

Mirabai :- Great devotee to Krishna :- Popular in Rajasthan for Krishna Bhajans

Tulsidas :- Worshiper of Rama :- Composed Ramcharitmanas in Hindi

Gnandeva :- Founder of Bhakti movement in Maharashtra :- Wrote commentary of Bhagvat Gita called Gnaneswari (Maharashtra Drama)

1400 – 1500 AD  →  Ramananda, Kabir & Nanak

 *Great apostles of Bhakti movement →  Helped common people to shed old age superstitions

 *Preached salvation by Bhakti & pure devotion

 *Did not linked themselves with any particular religious creed

 *Emphasized on fundamental unity of all religions & never believed in rituals & ceremonies

 *Condemned polytheism, denounced all type of idolatry & believed in one god

 *Believed only Bhakti as a mean to attain salvation

Ramanada

 *Ram worshiper, born at Allahabad & originally follower of Ramanuja

 *Later he founded his own sect & preached his disciples in Hindi at Banaras & Agra (1st time in vernacular language)

He strongly believed in 2 ideals, namely:

 *Simplification of Worship

 *Emancipation of people from traditional caste rule

He choosed his disciples from all sections of the society irrespective of any caste viz.

Kabir :- Muslim Weaver (His verses are compiled in Bijak by kabirpanthis)

Raidasa :- A cobbler

Sena :- A barber

Sadhana :- A butcher

Dhanna :- A Jat farmer

Naraharai :- A goldsmith

Pipa :-    A Rajput Prince

Kabir

 *Born near Banaras; Borned to a Brahmin family but brought up by a weaver Muslim family

 *Was familiar with both Hindu & Muslim teachings

 *Regarded devotion to God with a pure heart as effective mean to attain salvation

 *Pure heart, according to Kabir, meant free from cruelty, Dishonesty, hypocrisy & insincerity)

 *His primary object was to reconcile Hindu & Muslims and establish harmony between them

 *Emphasized oneness of all religions by describing Hindus & Muslims as Pots of same clay.

 *To him Ram & Allah, Mandir & Mosque were the same

 *Denounced idolatry & rituals (Like Pilgrimage, Bathing in holy river, Namaz & Prayers etc.

 *Laid emphasis on equality of man before God

Guru Nanak (1469)

 *Born in Talawandi near Lahore, trained in accountancy  →  Disciple of Kabir

 *Founder of Sikh religion & was highly practical & ethical →  His disciples were known as Sikhs

 *Denounced caste distinctions & rituals like Pilgrimage, Bathing in holy river, Namaz etc.

 *Emphasized on giving up selfishness, falsehood & hypocrisy and to live life with truth, Honesty & Kindness

 *He composed hymns and sang them to the accompaniment of the ‘Rabab’, a musical instrument.

 *“Abide pure amidst the impurities of the world” was one of his famous teachings.

 *Dedicated life to establish harmony b/w Hindu & Muslims

Chaitanya

 *Born in Bengal & popularized Kirtan (or musical gatherings) of Krishna cult.

 *Though he was a Brahman he condemned the caste system and emphasized on the equality of all.

 *Renounced the world & became ascetic

 *Believed that through love & devotion, song & dance a devotee can feel the presence of God.

1600 AD (Eknath)  → Opposed caste systems & formed many lyrics & Bhajans

History (Medieval India History :- Delhi Sultanate Administration, Art & Culture)

Medieval India History :- Delhi Sultanate Administration, Art & Culture

Administration

 *Sultans considered themselves as representative of Caliphs (as inscribed on their coins & Khutba (Prayer)) & were of Islamic origin

 *Balban considered himself as shadow of god & of divine originality

 *Iltutmish, Muhammad bin tughlaq & Firoz tughlaq received Mansur or letter of permission from Caliphs

 *Sultans were most important administrators & had ultimate authority of the military (Commander in chief of military)

 *Greatest post was of Naib who practically enjoyed all the powers of sultan & exercised general control over all departments

Diwan – i – wazirat     

 *Head of finance department

Diwan – i – Ariz     

 *Military department headed by Ariz – i – Mumalik

 *Responsible for recruiting soldiers & administering military department

Diwan – i – Rasalat     

 *Department of religious affairs headed by chief Sadr

Diwan – i – Insha     

 *Department of correspondence, dealt with correspondence b/w rulers & officials

 *Head of judicial department of chief Qazi & Muslim sharia law was followed in civil matters

 *Hindus were governed by their own personal laws & their cases were dispensed by village panchayats

Local Administration

Iqtas     

 *Provinces were called Iqtas under the charge of nobles

 *Mainly to maintain law & collect revenue

 *Later came under the charge of Governors called “Muqtis or Walis”

Shiqs     

 *Iqtas were divided in Shiqs (districts) under Shiqdars

Pargana     

 *Shiqs were further divided into Pargana (no. of villages) headed by Amils

- Village headman was known as Mukaddam or chaudhary & Village accountant Patwari

Economy

 *Land was mainly divided into 3 categories viz.

 - Iqta land  →  Land assigned to officials as iqtas instead of payments for their services

 - Khalisa Land → Land under direct control of sultan

 - Inam Land  → Land assigned / granted to religious leaders or religious institutions

 *Peasants paid 1/3 or even 1 / 2 of their produce as land revenue along with other taxes

 *Taxes + frequent famines → Peasants always lived hand to mouth living

 *Cotton & silk industries flourished in this period along with paper industry

 *1 silver Tanka = 48 jitals in Khalji time = 50 jitals in tughlaq time 

Social Life

 *Traditional caste system with Brahamans at the top

 *Prevalent sati & parda system for women

 *No intermarriage b/w Turks, Iranian, Afgans & Indian Muslims

 *Hindus were considered zimmis or protected people for whom they were forced to pay a tax called Jiziya

 *In beginning, Jiziya it was collected as a part of land tax but Firoz tughlaq separated it from land revenue & collected it as a separate tax

Art & Architecture

 *Quwwat ul islam mosque near Qutub minar was built using materials obtained from destroying Hindu & Jain temples

 *Buildings were constructed by combining Arch, Minarets & Dome

 *Muhammad bin tughlaq built the tomb of Ghiyasuddin tughlaq on a high platform

Music

 *New music instruments such as Sarangi & Rabab were introduced in this period

 *Indian classical work Rangdarpan was translated to Persian during Firoz Tughlaq reign

 *Raja Man Singh (Gwalior) was a great music lover of this period & loved man Kautuhal

 *Pir Bhodan →  famous Sufi Saint of this period

Amir Khusro (1252 – 1325)

 *Introduced Ragas like ghora & Sanam

 *Evolved Qawwali mixing Indian & Iranian music

 *Invented Sitar & Tabla

Literature

 *Barani’s “Tariq – i – Firoz – Shahi “ contains history of Tughlaq dynasty

 *Minhaj Us Siraj wrote “Tabaqat – i – Nasari” contains general history of Muslims dynasty upto 1260

 *Amir Khusro (famous Persian writer)

 - Created new style of Persian poetry called Sabaq – i – hind / Indian styled Persian poetry

 - Wrote Khazain – ul – Fatah about Alaunddin conquests

 - Wrote Tughlaq nama about the rise of Ghiyasuddin tughlaq

 *Zia Nakshabi   →  1st one to translate Sanskrit stories into Persian (1st one was Tuti nama or book of parrot)

 *Rajat Rangini written by Kalhana was also translated to Persian during this period

 *Chand Bharati →  Famous Hindi poet of this time

History (Medieval India History :- Delhi Sultanate: Tughlaq Dynasty, Sayyids Dynasty, Lodi Dynasty)

Medieval India History :- Delhi Sultanate: Tughlaq Dynasty, Sayyids Dynasty, Lodi Dynasty

Tughlaq Dynasty (1320 – 1414)

 *Founded by Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq

 *Laid foundation of Tughlaqabad near Delhi

 *Killed by his own son “Ulugh khan” who ascended throne under the name of Muhammad – bin – tughlaq in 1325

Muhammad – Bin – Tughlaq (ill-starred Idealist)

 *Known for his tolerant nature in religious matters & novel experiments

 *Only sultan who had received a literary, religious & philosophical education

 *Formed 2nd capital at Devagiri to control south India under the name of Daultabad

 *He forced royals, people & Sufis to move to Daultabad, but many of them died in rigorous journey (1500 Km)

 *After 2 years Sultan abandoned Daultabad & asked them to return to Delhi

 *Introduced copper coins at par value of silver Tanka but couldn’t prevent forgery, hence stopped the circulation of token money

 *Exchanged silver coins for all copper coins circulated in the market which led to vanish of royal treasury

 *To overcome financial difficulties, he imposed heavy tax revenue on land, which led to strong revolt from peasants (as at the same time a strong famine was also ravaging)

 *Later, Sultan launched a scheme by which “Takkavi loans” (Loan for cultivation) were given to farmers to buy seeds & to extend cultivation.

 *A separate department for agriculture “Diwan – i – Kolhi” was established. This experiment was further continued by Firoz Tughlaq

 *On Muhammad Bin Tughlaq’s Death, Barani quoted “Finally sultan was freed from people & people from sultan”. He also called sultan as mixture of opposites.

Firoz Tughlaq

 *Appointed Khan – i – Jahan Maqbal, a telegu brahmin convert as Wazir of his kingdom to help him in day to day administration

 *Collected 1300 Sanskrit manuscripts from Jwalamukhi temple’s library (Himachal Pradesh) & got them converted into Persian

 *Revived Iqta system & made it hereditary (Nobles hereditary succession to their properties)

 *Had largest slaves in his period (Diwan-e-Bandagani)

Industries & Taxes

 *Levied various taxes →  Jiziya on Non-Muslims

 *Abolished taxes on 28 items as was against the Islamic law

 *1st sultan to impose irrigation tax

 *Developed irrigation network by means of canals & highly encouraged horticulture

 *Developed royal factories “Karkhanas”, in which thousands of slaves were employed

 *Introduced a department called Diwan – i – Khairat to take care of Orphans & Widows

 *Developed free hospitals & Marriage bureaus for poor Muslims

Art & Culture

 *Formed 300 new towns as Firozabad near Red fort (Delhi), Now known as Firozshah Kotla

 *Patronized scholars like Barani & Afif

 *As he was guided by Ulemas, he was intolerant towards Shia Muslims & Sufis

 *Treated Hindus as 2nd grade citizen

- After his death Taimur (Timur) entered Delhi & looted enormous wealth, murdered thousands & left India in 1399 blowing a death blow to Tughlaq dynasty

Sayyids (1414 – 1451)

 *Before departure, Timur appointed Khirz khan as governor of Multan

 *Khirz Khan captured Delhi & founded Sayyids Dynasty

 *Last prince of sayyid dynasty, Alam Shah (Weakest Sayyid Prince) handed over throne to Bahlol lodi & retired to Badaun

Lodis (1451 – 1526)

 *Lodis who succeeded Sayyids were Afgans with Bahlol lodi as 1st Afgan ruler, while his predeccessors were all Turks

 *Succeeded by his Son Sikandar lodi (Greatest of all Lodis) →  He destroyed many Hindu temples & imposed many restrictions on Hindus

 *Succeeded by Ibrahim Lodi (His son), who was highly arrogant in nature & insulted his nobles openly. Nobles who ever revolted were put to death.

 *Greatly displeased by arrogance of Ibrahim Lodi, Daulat khan Lodi invited Babur to invade India, who marched Delhi & killed Ibrahim Lodi in 1st battle of Panipat

History (Medieval India History :- Delhi Sultanate: Khilji Dynasty (1290 – 1320))

Medieval India History :- Delhi Sultanate: Khilji Dynasty (1290 – 1320)

 *Founder of Khilji dynasty was Jalaluddin Khilji

 *killed by his son – in – law Alauddin khilji to claim the throne of Delhi

Alaunddin Khilji (1296 – 1316)

 *Passed 4 ordinances to be free from rebellions:

 - Confiscated properties of Nobles

 - Organised intelligence system to know secret activities of nobles

 - Public sale of drugs & alcohol was totally stopped

 - Social gathering & festivities without permission of Sultan was forbidden

 *Maintained large standing army & paid them in cash

 *Introduced system of Dagh (Branding of horses ) & Huliya (of soldiers)

 *Introduced 4 markets in Delhi viz.

 - For Grains

 - For cloths, sugar, dry fruits, oil & butter

 - For horses, slaves & cattle

 - For miscellaneous commodities

 *Each market was under the control of a high officer called “Shahna – i – Mandi”

 *Secret agents “ Munhiyans” were appointed to report functioning of these markets to sultan

 *Prices were fixed for every commodity & if anyone found cheating, he was measured with harsh punishment

 *Alauddin Khilji was 1st sultan of Delhi who ordered measurement of land to collect land revenue in cash

Military Campaign

 *Raided Gujrat in 1299, Queen & a Eunuch “Kafur” were taken to Delhi,

 *kafur was made Malik Naib (Military commander)

 *Raided Chittor where Raja Ratan singh fought valiantly but got defeated

 *Ratan singh’s queen Rani Padmini performed Jauhar (self-immolation) along with other women (Mentioned in book Padmavat written by Jayasi)

 *Greatest achievement of Khilji was conquest of Deccan & Far south till Pandya kingdom of Madurai →  By Kafur (slave of Khilji who conquered Devagiri, Warrangal, Hoysala & Madurai)

Art & Culture

 *Patronized poets like Amir Khusro & Amir Hasan

 *Built famous gateway known as Alai Darwaja (Entrance of Qutub Minar)

 *Constructed a new capital at Siri (Delhi)

History (Medieval India History :- Delhi Sultanate: Slave Dynasty (1206 – 1290))

Medieval India History :- Delhi Sultanate: Slave Dynasty (1206 – 1290)

- Slave dynasty (Mamluk dynasty) was mainly sum up of 3 small dynasties, namely

 *Qutubi Dynasty (1206 – 1211) * →  By Qutubuddin Aibak

 *1st Ilbari Dynasty (1211 – 1246)   →  By Iltutmish

 *2nd Ilbari Dynasty (1246 – 1290)  →  By Balban

Qutubuddin Aibak (1206 -1210)

 *At the death of Muhammad Ghori, Aibak declared his independence & setup his own rule at Indraprastha, near Delhi

 *He severed all connections with Ghori kingdom & founded slave dynasty as well as Delhi sultanate

 *Assumed the title of Sultan & made Lahore his capital

 *Also known as Lakh bakhsh by Muslim writers due to his charity of 1 lakh coins to them

 *Patronised great scholar “Hasan Nizami” & started construction of famous Qutub minar named after famous Sufi saint Khwaja – i – Qutubuddin- Bakthiyar (Minar was later completed by Iltutmish)

 *Died Playing Chaugan (Horse polo) in 1210

Iltutmish (1211 – 1236)

 *Belonged to Ilbari tribe hence his dynasty is named Ilbari dynasty. His half-brothers sold him to Aibak who made him, his son-in-law & appointed him as ‘Iqtadar of Gwalior’

 *In 1211, Iltutmish defeated Aram Bakhsh (Son of Aibak) & became sultan

 *Shifted capital from Lahore to Delhi, Completed Qutub Minar at Delhi & Built Ajmer Sharif mosque

 *Introduced Arabic coinage silver taka (175 gm) coin in India which became the basis of modern rupee

 *Started a new class of ruling elites of 40 powerful military leaders known as “the 40 nobles” or Chahalgani

 *It was under his reign that Mongols under Changez khan raided Central Asia

Razia Sultana (1236 – 1240)

 *Appointed Abyssinian slave Yakuth as master of royal horses

 *Discarded female cloths & held court with face unveiled

 *Altunia, Governor of Bhatinda, revolted against her & captured her as prisoner but later married her

 *Razia, proceeded to Delhi to regain her control but got defeated & killed

Balban (1246 – 1287)

 *Introduced rigorous court discipline & started new customs such as Prostration (Shijada & Paipos rule) & kissing sultan’s feet to prove his supremacy over nobles

 *Introduced Persian festival of Navroj to impress the nobles

 *Spared only the most loyal nobles (Chahalganis) & eliminated all others by one mean or other

 *Established a separate military department “Diwan – i –Arz” to maintain law & order

History (Medieval India History :- Ghaznavids : Mahmud Of Gazni & Muhammad Ghori)

Medieval India History :- Ghaznavids : Mahmud Of Gazni & Muhammad Ghori

Ghaznavids (1000 – 1200 AD)

 *Islam →  Founded in Mecca by prophet muhammad (622 AD)

 *622 AD →  Starting point of Muslim calender

 *Later, Profet moved to Madina & this Muslim era was called Hijra

 *Followers of prophet set up an empire known as Caliphate

 *Umayyads & Abbasids were called Caliphs (Arabs)

Mahmud of Gazni

 *Around 900 AD, Caliphate declined & Turkish established independent kingdoms

 *Mahmud of Gazni is said to have made 17 raids to India, mainly aimed at rich temples & cities of North India

 *North Indian frontier Hindu Shahi kingdom of Jayapala (Punjab to Kabul) was defeated in 1001 AD

 *His successor Anandpala also got defeated in battle of Waihind (1008 AD).

 *In battle of Waihind, Anandpala was supported by Rulers of Kannauj & Rajasthan; as a result Mahmud got his rule established over almost all over Punjab

Famous Poets Patronized by Mahmud of Gazni

 *Firdausi  →  Wrote Shahnamah

 *Alberuni →  Wrote Kitab-i-Hind

Muhammad Ghori

 *After death of Mahmud, Ghori succeeded to the throne of Ghazni

 *In 1186, He attacked Punjab & captured it from “Khusro Malik”, annexing it to his dominions

 *Realizing the urgency of situation, North Indian Hindu princes formed a confederacy under the command of Prithvi Raj Chauhan

 *Prithvi raj chauhan defeated Muhammad Ghori in Battle of Tarain, near Delhi in 1191

 *Again, Muhammad Ghori gathered a vast army & sent message to Prithvi raj chauhan to be a Muslim & accept his supremacy but Chauhan rejected his terms.

 *In 1192, in 2nd battle of Tarain , Prithvi raj Chauhan was captured & killed, marking the establishment of 1st Muslim kingdom rule over Ajmer in India

 *Muhammad Ghori returned to Ghazni leaving his general Qutubuddin Aibak to make further conquests in India →  Aibak captured Delhi & Meerut and in 1193

 *Ghori invaded Jayachandra “Ruler of Kannauj” in battle of Chandwar or Ghardawala & annexed it, setting Turkish rule in North India

Delhi Sultanet

- Muslim invasion in India resulted in establishment of Delhi Sultanet (1206 – 1526) which mainly consisted of 5 different dynasties

Dynasty :- Prominent Rulers

Slave dynasty :- Qutubuddin Aibak, Iltutmish, Razia Sultana, Balban

Khilji dynasty :- Jalaluddin Khalji, Alaunddin Khalji

Tughlaq dynasty :- Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq, Muhammad – Bin – Tughlaq, Firoz Tughlaq

Sayyid dynasty :- Khirz khan, Alam Shah

Lodi dynasty :-    Bahlol lodi, Sikandar lodi, Ibrahim Lodi

History (Medieval India History :- Rashtrakutas & Imperial Cholas)

Medieval India History :- Rashtrakutas & Imperial Cholas

Rashtrakutas

Deccan + Karnataka  →  975 AD     Mother Tounge  →  Kannad

Capital  →  Manyakhet     Great Kannad Poet  →  Pampa (Wrote Vikramasena Vijaya & Adi Purana)

Dantidurga

 *Founder of Rashtrakutas kingdom

 *Defeated Pariharas annexed Malwa

 *Defeated & Annexed Chalukyas

Krishana 1

 *Annexed Chalukyas of Vengi (Eastern Chalukyas)

 *Built Monolithic Ellora temple Kailasha temple →  Dravidian Style

Amoghavarsha

 *Ruled for 64 Years →  Follower of Jainism

 *Chief Teacher →  Jinasena (Wrote Parshavabudaya)

 *Wrote 1st Kannada book →  Kavirajmarga

 *Built capital Malkhed (Manyakhet) to its zenith

Krishana 3

 *Last prominent Rashtrakuta ruler

 *Built Krishaneshwara Temple at Rameshwaram

 *After his death Rastrakutas power declined & Chalukya of kalyani took over

Administration of Rashtrakutas

 *Empire was divided into several provinces called Rashtras under the control of Rashtrapati

 *Rashtras were further divided into Districts called vishayas, goverened by Vishayapatis

 *Next subdivision was Bukti (Consiting of 50 – 70 villages ) under charge of Bhogpatis

 *Each village was headed by village headmen who in turn was helped by village elders called Grama Mahajana or Grama Mahattara

 *Law & order was responsibility of Kosta – pala or Kotwal

 *Hereditary Revenue Officer →  Nav Gavundas or Desa Gramakutas

Religion

 *Vaishnavism & Shaivism prominently flourished

 *Jainism & Buddhism along with Muslims were welcomed & allowed to preach their faith

 *Famous Temples → Kailash temple at Ellora, Krishaneshwara temple at Rameshwaram

 *Famous Caves *→ Elephanta Caves at Mumbai

Imperial Cholas (900 -1200 AD)

Vijayalaya

 *Founder of Chola Dynasty

 *Capital →  Tanjore

 *Built Durga Temple at Tanjore

Rajaraja 1 (Shaivist)

 *Defeated Cheras (Trivendrum), Pandayas & Annexed Northern Srilanka

 *Conquered Maldieves & Chalukya of Kalyani (Who succeeded Rashtrakutas)

 *Built Famous Rajeshwara/Brihadeshwara temple at Tanjore (Dravida Style) in 1010 AD

Rajendra 1 (Shaivist)

 *Defeated southern Srilanka & annexed whole Srilanka

 *Moved north & Captured till Bengal defeating Mahipala 1; Assumed title of Gangaikonda chola

 *Conquered Malay Peninsula & converted Bay of Bengal to Chola lake for trading purposes with China

 *Found new capital Gangaikondacholapuram at Kaveri & Built famous Gangaikondachola Temple ( Dravida style)

Administration

 *Chola Empire was divided into Mandalams or provinces

 *Mandalams were further divided into Valanadu or Nathus (Number of villages)

 *Local self-government in villages with mainly two assemblies Ur & Sabha (or Mahasabha)

 *Ur  →  General assembly of the village

 *Mahasabha →  Gathering of adult men in Brahamdeya villages called Agraharas

Culture & Religion

 *Prevalent cast system as Brahamanas & Kshatriyas enjoyed powers

 *Shaivism & Vaishnavism flourished & a number of temples & Mathas (educational centres) were built

 *Shaivism saints were known as Nayanars & Vishnu saints as Alvars

 *Famous Temples → Brihadisvara Temple at Thanjavur by Rajraja 1, Airavatesvara Temple at Darasuram by Rajraja 2, Brihadisvara Temple at Gangaikondacholisvaram by Rajendra 1

Dravida was the main style of building temples viz.

 - 5 -7 story building above Girbhagriha (Chief deity room) → Vimana Style

 - Gopurams (Lofty gates)

 - Mandap (pillars) with big hall for audiences & ceremonies

 - Ceremonies performed by Devadasis (Women dedicated to God

 - Example → Kailashnath temple of Kanchipuram

History (Ancient India History :- Chalukya Of Badami, Pallavas, Pandyas)

Ancient India History :- Chalukya Of Badami, Pallavas, Pandyas

 *600 AD: 3 Main Kingdoms in South: Chalukya (Badami); Pallava (Kanchi); Pandyas (Madurai)

 *Primary Language : Sanskrit

 *Rise of agrarian economy + No megaliths + Decline in trade

 *Numerous grants were made to Brahamanas

 *Marked by beginning of construction of stone temple of Vishnu & Shiva

 *Jainism was confined to Maharashtra

Chalukyas of Badami

 *Northern Maharashtra → Vakatas (Brahamanas) Succeded Satavahanas

 *Vakatas were Succeeded by Chalukyas of Badami (Vatapi)

 *Chalukyas of Badami claimed their descendent from Moon/Manu/Brahma

 *Capital → Badami (Vatapi) at Bijapur (Karnataka)

Greatest Ruler → Pulakeshin 2

 *Aihole inscription by Ravikriti in sanskrit

 *Defeated Harshas Army advancing in Deccan on banks of Narmada

Architecture by Chalukyas

 *Developed Deccan/ Vesara style Temples

 *Developed Papanatha & Virupaksha @ Pattadakal (City of famous 10 temples)

Pallavas

 *Eastern Peninsula → Ikshvakus (Suryavansh) Succeeded Satavahans

 *Ikshvakus were succeeded by Pallavas

 *Pallavas were called “ Creeper/ Tondai / Robbers)

 *Capital → Kanchipuram

 *Conflict with kadambas (Founded by Mayurasharman : Capital → Vaijayanti)

Great Pallava Ruler → Narasimhavarman

 *Defeated Pulakeshin 2

 *Occupied Vatapi & entitled Vatapikonda

 *Founded Port city of Mahabalipuram (Now Mamallapuram)

Pallavas Dravidian Style Temples

7 Ratha temple :- Mahabalipuram :- Rock cut

Shore Temple :- Mahabalipuram :- Free standing

Vaikuntha Perumal  :-   Mahabalipuram :- Free standing

Kailashnath Temple :- Kanchipuram :- Free standing

Conflict with Kalbhras

 *Pallavas, Chalukyas & Kadambas → All 3 were brahamans

 *Followed brahamanism with vedic sacrifices

 *Made numerous land grants to Brahamanas

 *Kalbhras Patronised Buddhism & Buddhist monasteries

 *Land grants to brahamanas led to revolt of Kalbhras mainly to put an end to Brahamadeya right to Brahamanas

Rural Structure

 *Generally 3 types of villages, namely Ur, Sabha & Nagaram

Ur :- Inhabited by peasants who held their land in common & village headman collected tax & paid on everyone’s behalf

Sabha :- Brahamdeya or land granted to Brahamanas (Agrahara villages)

Nagaram :- Inhabited by merchants & traders

 *In Chalukya kingdom rural affairs were managed by village elders known as “Mahajana”

History (Ancient India History :- Harshavardhana (606 – 647 AD))

Ancient India History :- Harshavardhana (606 – 647 AD)

 *After Gupta’s decline, Harshavardhana, a ruler of Thanesar, Haryana extended his authority over all fiduciaries

 *Harshavardhana made Kannauj his capital & seat of power & became last great Hindu ruler of North India

 *In his early life, Harsha was devoted to Shiva but later he became an ardent Mahayana Buddhist under the influence of Chinese pilgrim Huan Tsang

Kannauj Assembly → Harsha organised a Kannauj assembly to honour Chinese pilgrim Huan Tsang where he explained doctrines of Mahayana Buddhism & claimed his superiority over others

Prayag Assembly → 2nd Mahayana Buddhism assembly by Harsha, marked by great charity of Harsha where he even gave up his cloths as charity

 *Revenue collection during Harsha’s period was divided into 4 parts namely 

 *1 For kings

 *2 For Scholars

 *3 For officials

 *4 For Religious purposes
  
Banskhera inscriptions contains sign & conquest of Harshavardhana

Huan Tsang Account

 *Book → Si – Yu – Ki and Biography  → Hui – Li

 *Prevalent dowry & Sati system with no system of widow remarriage

 *Sudras were known as agriculturist

 *Trade declined & less issuance of coins

 *Grants of land gained popularity

 *Thieves at state were met with extreme punishments

Literary Sources

Banabhatta :- Harshacharita , Kadambari

Harshavardhana :- Ratnavali, Nagananda, Priyadarsika

 *Harsha patronised Nalanda university (Mahayana type mostly), which attained international reputation as a center of learning during his reign

 *At Valabhi lied Hinyana form of Buddhism Institution

 *Nalanda (Giver of knowledge) name was founded by Kumargupta – 1 in Gupta period
    

History (Ancient India History :- Gupta Empire (400 – 600 AD))

Ancient India History :- Gupta Empire (400 – 600 AD)

 *On ruins of Kushan Empire rose Gupta Empire

 *Constituted majority of UP & Bihar

 *Main center of power at Prayag (Allahabad)

 *Founder of Gupta Dynasty was Sri- gupta

 *Srigupta was succeeded by Ghatochkacha

 *Both of them were called Maharaja

Chandragupta 1

 *1st to be called as Maharajadhiraja (Great king of kings)

 *Married Lichchhavi princess which gave him strength & prestige

 *Considered to be founder of Gupta era as a mark of his ascension

 *Mehraulli iron pillar inscriptions mentions his extensive quests

Samundragupta

 *Known as greatest ruler of Gupta dynasty & Napolean of India

 *Was opposite of Asoka & delighted in military conquest.

 *Inscriptions of his military conquest are mentioned (in sanskrit with Nagari script) on same Allahabad pillar which carries inscriptions of peace loving Asoka

 *Samundragupta never knew any defeat & conquered east till Assam, west till eastern Afganistan, North till Kashmir & south till Tamilnadu

 *Was a lover of art & literature, Self-proficient in music & poetry, hence called Kaviraja

 *Patronised many poets & scholars along with famous Harisena

 *Was an ardent follower of vaishnavism but tolerant to other religions

Chandragupta 2 (Chandragupta Vikramaditya)

 *His reign saw high watermark of Gupta Empire

 *Extended his empire by military conquests & marriage alliances

 *Defeated Shakas in Malwa & Gujrat & conquered western sea port, henceforth, Ujjain became 2nd capital of Guptas, 1st being Prayag

 *His exploits as Chandra has been mentioned on Qutub iron pillar Delhi

 *His reign at Ujjain court saw numerous scholars including “Kalidasa & Amarsimha”

 *It was his reign under which chinese pilgrimage Fa-hsien / Fahien (399-414 AD) visited India

Fall of Gupta Empire

 *Due to invasion of Hunas from central Asia

 *Due to rise of Yashodharman in Malwa

 *Due to dissention within the royal family & weak rulers

 *The later Gupta’s embraced Buddhismwhile their predecessors were staunch Hindus.

Gupta’s Administration

 *Unlike Mauryas, Guptas assumed titles like parmeshwara, Maharajadhiraja & Paramabhattaraka

 *Provinces in Gupta’s period were known as Bhuktis & provincial governors Uparikas

 *King maintained close contacts with provincial administration through a class of officials called “Kumaramatyas” & “Ayuktas”

 *Provinces were divided into districts Vishayas under charge of Vishayapati

 *All foreign affairs were looked after by foreign affair minister known as “Sandivigraha”

 *Villagers were subjected to forced labour called Vishti for serving royal army & officials

Religion & Social Culture

 *Brahamans formed the top ladder & receive numerous gifts

 *Brahamanism reigned supreme during Gupta period & had 2 branches mainly, Vaishnavism & Shaivism, with former more prevalent (Bhagavatism)

 *Fahien accounts shows a decline of Budhhism in Gangetic valley but a few budhhist monks like Vasubandhu were patronised by Gupta kings

Art & Culture

 *Gupta age is called golden age of India in field of art, science & literature

 *Nagara & Dravidian styles of art evolved during this period

 *Delhi iron pillar, 7 ½ feet Buddha statue & Deogarh temple are finest example of Gupta art

 *Mural paintings of Ajanta, which mainly depicted life stories of Buddha as in Jtaka stories belong to this period (Paintings at Sigiria in Srilanka are influenced by Ajanta paintings)

Literature

 *Sanskrit became primary language in Gupta period

 *Ramayana & Mahabharata were compiled during this period

Kalidasa :- Abhigyanshakuntalam, MalvikagnimitramVikramorvasiya, KumarsambhavaRaghuvamsa, Ritusamhara, Meghaduta

Vishakadatta :- Mudrarakshash & Devi – Chandraguptam

Vishnusharma :- Panchtantra stories

Sudraka :- Mrich – chakatika (Little clay art or toy cart)

Amarsimha :- Amarkosha (Lexicon in sanskrit)

Dandin :- Kavyadarsa & Desa – kumarcharita

Science & Technology

Aryabhatta :- Aryabhatiyam , Suryasidhhanta

Varahmitra :- Panch sidhhanta (5 astronomical system)Brihadsamhita, Brihadjataka (Astrology)

Vagbhata :- Ashtangasamgraha (Summary of 8 branches of Medicine) 

History (Ancient India History :- Cheras, Cholas & Pandyas)

Ancient India History :- Cheras, Cholas & Pandyas

“During Sangam age south India was ruled by 3 dynasties namely Cheras, Cholas & Pandyas”

Cheras (Keralaputras)

Capital → Vanji :- Seaports → Muziri & Tondi :- Emblem → Bow

 *Roman Temple of Augustus (Later destroyed by Tipu)

 *Greatest Ruler: Senguttuvan (Red/Good Chera)

 *Trade: Pepper (Yavanpriya) + Jackfruit with Romans

Cholas (Cholamandam)

Emblem → Tiger :- Chief crop → Paddy

 *Greatest Ruler: Karikala → Founded Puhar (Kaveripatanam) → Capital on river Kaveri

 *Seaport → Puhar (became center of commerce & trade)

 *Uraipur: Chief Political Center Famous for Cotton trade

Pandyas

Emblem → Carp :- Chief crop → Paddy

 *Founded by a woman king

 *Patronized Sangam assembly at capital Madurai

 *Famous for its pearls trade

Imp. Features of 3 kingdoms

 *Major Revenue Source: Agriculture + Trade (Custom duty) + Warbooty

 *Main influence of Brahamans → (Sacrifices + Dakshina) Prominent

 *Primary Deity → Seyon / Murugan / Known as Subramaniyam in medieval times along with other gods worshipped were Vishnu & Indra

Ruling class :- Arasar

Lowest class :- Kadaisiyar

Military captains :- Enadi

Rich Peasants :- Vellasem

Agricultural labours :- Pariyars (who worked in animal skin)

 *Artisans were organized in Shrenis acc. to work which had judicial power over them & can issue loans to workers.

 *Chief exports were Cotton fabric, Pepper (Yavanpriya), Ivory, Cardamom, Pearl, Cinnamon & Precious stones & chief imports were Gold, Horses, sweet wines & Coins (Gold & Silver)

 *In north, Mathura was famous for a special kind of cloth called “Shataka”

History (Ancient India History :- Sangam Age: 300 – 600 AD)

Ancient India History :- Sangam Age: 300 – 600 AD

Sangam Age: 300 – 600 AD

 *Assembly of poets

 *Mainly patronized by Pandayas

Divided in 2 parts

 Narrative     

 *18 major works ( Melkannakku)

 *Mainly on Aham (Love) & Puram (Valor)

 *10 Idylls ( Pattuppattu)

 *8 Anthrologies (Ettutogai)

Didactic     

 *18 minor works (Kikanakku)

 *Philosophical, Moral & ethical message

 *Encloses Tirukkural – Bible of Tamils (Written by Thiruvallur)

Twin Tamil Epics

Silappadikaram

 *Brightest Jewel anklet of Tamil literature

 *Love story of Kovalam + Madhavi (Dancer) over his wife Kannagi

 *Written by Elango Adigal

Manimekalai

 *Story of adventures of daughter born of Kovalam & Madhavi

 *Written by Sattanur

Narrative text

 *Works of heroics poetry in which heroes are glorified

 *Perpetual wars & cattle raids are frequently mentioned

 *This text shows traces of early megalithic life &that early Tamil people were mainly pastoral →Lived basically on hunting & fishing although cultivated rice

 *Megalithic people believed that when a hero dies he is reduced to stones which remind us of circle of stones on the graves of megalithic people.

 *It may have led to practice of raising “Hero stone known as Virarkal” in honour of heroes died fighting

 *This text also gives us idea about military & administrative system along with trade & commerce of south Indian people

Didactic Text

 *Work of Brahamana written in Prakrit – Sanskrit language

 *Mainly prescribing code of conduct for king & other social classes

- Tolkkappiyam → Earliest of Tamil literature which deals with grammer & poetics on political & socio economic conditions of that period

History (Ancient India History :- Foreign Invasion Of NW India: Shakas, Parthians, Kushanas)

Ancient India History :- Foreign Invasion Of NW India: Shakas, Parthians, Kushanas

Foreign invasion of NW India

 *Bactrians & Parthians (Iranians) became independent from Syrian (Greek) rule around 300 BC

 *Around 200 BC, B.C. Demetrius, the Greek ruler of Bactria invaded Afganistan & Punjab & occupied them.

 *From Taxila he sent his 2 commanders, Appolodotus & Menander for further conquest

 *Appolodotus conquered Sindh & marched upto Ujjain

 *Menander extended his rule upto Mathura & from there attempted to capture Patliputra, but was stopped by Vasumitra (Grandson of Pusyamitra Sunga)

 *Menander, also called Milinda, formed his capital at Sakala (Sialcot) & took great interest in Buddhism. His dialogues with Buddhist monk Nagsena were compiled in Pali work “Milindpanho” or questions of Milinda.

 *Milinda, finally embraced Buddhism under Buddhist monk Nagarjuna

 *A Greek ambassador, Heliodorus, became vaishnavite (Vasudev worshiper mainly) & erected ‘Garuna Pillar’ at Besnagar (Vidisa) – MP

 *Indo-Greeks were 1st to issue gold coins in India

Shakas (Iranian Sythians)

 *Greeks were followed by scythians (Shakas) who controlled much larger area of India then Greek did. There were 5 branches of Shakas in 5 different directions in India & Afghanistan.

 *Most famous Shaka ruler in India was Rudradaman 1 who ruled not only Sindh but also considerable part of Gujrat, Konkan, Malwa & Kathiawar.

 *Rudradaman 1 is famous in history for his repair work of Sudarshana lake at Kathiawar & for issuing 1st ever long inscription in chase Sanskrit whose he was a lover of

- Around 57 B.C, we hear of a king of Ujjain who fought effectively against Shakas & emerged victorious, He called himself ‘Vikramaditya’, by whose name an era Vikram Samvat is reckoned. Henceforth, vikramaditya became a coveted title & whosoever achieved anything great adopted this title.

Parthians (Pahlavas)

 *Parthians (Iranians) overthrew Shakas from Taxila around 1st century

 *Most famous Parthian king was Gondopherens, in whose reign St. Thomas is said to have visited India for propagation of Christianity.

Kushanas

 *Branch of Yuchis or Tocharians tribe from north central Asia basically from neighbourhood of China

 *They 1st occupied Bactria or North Afghanistan, displacing Shakas & then gradually moved upto Kabul valley & seized Gandhara by crossing Hindukush range, replacing rule of Greeks & Parthians from these areas.

 *Finally they setup their authority over lower Indus basin & Greater part of Ganga basin

 *Founder of Kushana dynasty was Kadphises 1 who issued coins in Kabul valley in his name.

 *His son Kadphises 2 issued gold coins with high sounding titles like “ Lord of whole world “ & spread his kingdom to the east as far as Mathura

kanishka (78 – 120 AD)

 *Most important ruler of Kushana dynasty & founder of Shaka era (Starts from 78 AD) used by GOI

 *He was not only a great conqueror but also extended his whole hearted patronage to Buddhism

 *He extended Kushana empire upto lower Indus basin (Malwa) & eastward till Magadha in India & setup his capital at Peshawar (Purushaputra)

 *Kanishka issued a high number of gold coins with high purity & embraced Buddhism whole heartedly.

 *However his coin exhibit images of not only Buddha but also of Greek & Hindu gods which reflects that he was tolerant towards other religions

 *He was a great patron of art & Sanskrit & held 4th Buddhist council at Kashmir, where doctrine of Mahayana form of Buddhism were finalised

 *He patronised many Buddhist scholars like Asvagosha (who wrote saundarananda & Budhhacharita → Both in Sanskrit), Nagarjuna & Vasumitra

 *He also patronised famous physician of Indian history Charka who wrote “ Charaksamhita”

 *Last important Kushana ruler was Vasudeva who was worshipper of Shiva

Impact of central Asian Contact

 *Typical pottery of this age became red ware pottery, Plain & polished

 *Shakas – Kushanas introduced better cavalry & use of riding horses on large scale along with use of turban, tunic, trousers & longcoats

 *Kushanas were the 1st ruler in India to issue gold coins on wide scale & controlled major part of silk trade

 *Kushanas adopted pompous titles as King of Kings & were called Sons of god like Asoka was called Dear to gods

Gandhara School of Art

 *Real patrons of this art were Shaka –Kushana rulers, esp. kanishka

 *This art was a blend of India & Graeco-Roman elements (Mainly in Buddha sculptures) with main theme Mahayanism or new form of Buddhism

 *Extensive use of Stucco + Terracotta in small quantity

Mathura School of Art

 *Famous for headless erect statue of kanishka with his name inscribed below

 *Produced Buddha sculptures exhibiting spiritual feeling on his face which was absent in Gandhara school of art

 *Also produced stone images of Mahavira, Shiva & Vishnu along with their consorts Parvati & Lakshmi. Also carved out female figures of Yakshini & Apsara beautifully

 *Extensive use of Red Sandstone

History (Ancient India History :- Post Mauryan India: Sungas Dynasty, Satavahanas)

Ancient India History :- Post Mauryan India: Sungas Dynasty, Satavahanas

Post Mauryan India

- After Ashoka’s death, his successors were not able to keep the vast Mauryan kingdom intact. Provinces started declaring independence. N-W India slipped out of Mauryan control & a series of foreign invasion affected this region.

 *Kalinga declared its independence & in further south Satavahanas declared their independent rule

 *As a result, the Mauryan empire was confined to Gangetic valley & soon replaced by Sunga dynasty

Sungas Dynasty

 *Founder of Sunga dynasty was Pushyamitra Sunga, who was commander in chief under the Mauryas.

 *He assasinated the last Mauryan ruler & claimed the throne

 *After the invasion from Bactrian Greeks from N-W, Greeks advanced upto Patliputra & occupied it for some time but Pusyamitra sunga reclaimed it.

 *He also fought against Kharvela of Kalinga who invaded N- India

 *Pushyamitra was a staunch follower of Brahamanism & persecuter of Budhhists, however he patronised buddhist art & during his reign Buddhist monuments of Bharut (HP) & Sanchi were renovated

 *After death of Pushyamitra, his son Agnimitra became the ruler

 *The last Sunga ruler was Devabhuti, Who was murdered by his own minister Vasudeva Kanva, Founder of Kanva dynasty.

 *Kanva dynasty ruler for approx 45 years & then Supplanted by Satavahanas & few time later came Gupta’s at Magadha

Effect of Sunga’s

- Defended Gangetic valley from foreign invaders, revived brahamanism, vaishnavism, horse sacrifice & use of Sanskrit language. Hence, Sunga rule was a brilliant anticipation of golden age of Guptas

Satavahanas

 *In deccan, Satavahanas established their independent rule after the decline of Mauryas.

 *Their rule lasted for 450 years & were known as Andhras

 *Capital → Paithan/ Pratisthan on the river Godavari

 *Founder of Satavahana dynasty was Simuka. He was succeeded by Krishna, who extended his kingdom to west uptill Nashik

 *Greatest ruler of Satavahana Dynasty was Gautamiputra Satkarni.

 1 Called himself the only Brahamana.

 2 Called himself the only Brahamana.

 3 Nashik & Nanaghad inscriptions throw light on achievements of Gautamiputra satkarni

 4 Patronised Brahamanism yet gave donations to Buddhists

 *He was succeeded by his son Vashishtaputra Pulamayi who issued coins with the inscription of images of ships which shows naval power & maritime trade of Satavahanas

 *Last great ruler of this dynasty was Yajna sri Satkarni, who recovered Malwa & northern coast of konkan from Shaka rulers (which was captured by Rudradaman before)

- Satavahana period saw an extensive growth in overseas trade. Satavahana administration was almost same as Mauryans as District were called Aharas & officials Amatyas & Mahamantras. Administration of rural areas was placed under Gaulmika who was head of military regiment

Satavahanas → Official Language (Prakrit)

 *Issued Silver coins → Karshpanas + Issued Lead coins → For Trade

 *West Port → Kalyani + East Port → Gandakasela + Ganjam

 *Started Practice of giving Tax free Villages to Brahamanas & Monks

 *Satavahana Kingdom had 3 grades of feudatories

 1 Raja → Sole right to strike coin

 2 Mahabhoja

 3 Senapati

 *Revived Brahamanism along with practice of Aswamegha & Rajasuya sacrifices

 *Kataka + Skandhvaras → Military Regiments as administrative center for kings at wartime

 *Nagargunaconda + Amravati → Important Seats for Buddhists (Mahayana)

 *Satavahanas formed many Chaityas (Temples – Most famous is Karle in West Deccan)  & Viharas (Residents for monk)

 *Gathasattasai / Saptasati → Attributed to Satavahana king Hala

 *Satavahanas were succeeded by Ikshvakus

History (Ancient India History :- Mauryan Empire (321 – 184 BC))

Ancient India History :- Mauryan Empire (321 – 184 BC)

Literary Sources

Kautilya’s Arthshashtra

 *Written in Sanskrit by Chanakya / Kautilya / Vishnugupta / Indian Machiavelli

 *Contains 15 books & 180 chapters; with main theme divided into 3 parts

 1 King & his council and departments of government

 2 Civil & criminal law

 3 Diplomacy of war

Vishakadatta’s Mudrarakshasa

 *A drama in Sanskrit written during Gupta’s period

 *Describes how Chandragupta maurya with the help of Kautilya overthrew Nandas

 *Gives socio – economic picture of condition under mauryas

Megasthene’s Indica

 *Megasthene was a Greek ambassador in court of Chandragupta maurya

 *His book is survived in fragments & provides detail about mauryan administration & military organization, particularly of capital city (Patliputra)

Ceylonese Chronicles

 *Ceylonese chronicles “Dipavamsa & Mahavamsa” throw light on Ashoka’s role in spreading Buddhism in Srilanka

Edicts of Ashoka

 *Inscriptions of Ashoka were 1st deciphered by James Princep in 1837

 *Brahmi scripts were used for writing edicts, particularly Pali & Prakrit.

 *In N-W India Ashoka’s inscriptions were also found in Kharosti script

 *Name Ashoka occurs only in few minor edicts (Maski & Girnar) (In karnataka & Madhya pradesh), rest at all places edicts mention him as “Devampriya Priyadasi” → Dear to Gods

 *Famous Sanchi Stupa & Sarnath Pillar constitutes to Ashoka’s rein

Chandragupta Maurya

 *Founded Mauryan Empire by defeating Nandas with the help of Kautilya

 *In 305 BC, he marched against Selucus Nikator (Alexanders general controlling NW India) & defeated him.

 *A treaty was signed, according to which, Selucus gave Chandragupta eastern Afganisthan, Baluchistan & area west of Indus & in return Chandragupta gifted 500 elephants to Selucus & married his daughter.

 *Megasthenes was sent to Mauryan court as a Greek ambassador

 *Greek writer Justin (Who wrote epitome) called Chandragupta “Sandrocottus”

- Chandragupta embraced Jainism towards the end of his life & stepped down from the throne in favour of his son Bindusara & went to Mysore along with Jain monks led by Bhadrabagu & starved himself to death

Bindusara

 *Was called “Amitragatha” → Slayer of enemies by the Greeks

 *Conquered Deccan upto Mysore

 *Nikator’s successor Antichus 1 replaced Megasthenes with Deimachus as a Greek ambassador at mauryan court under Bindusara’s Patronage

 *Bindusara appointed Ashoka as the governor of Ujjain

Ashoka

 *Victorious war with Kalinga was the most important event of Ashoka’s reign & its effect on Ashoka has been described by Ashoka himself in rock edict 13

 *As an effect of kalinga war, Ashoka embraced Budhhism under the influence of Buddhist monk “Upagupta / Mogaliputra Tissa”

 *Abandoned policy of physical conquest in favour of policy of cultural conquest (Bherigosha replaced by Dhammagosa) as mentioned on rock pillar 13

 *Appointed a class of administrative officers known as “Rajukas” vested with the power of rewarding & punishing people, wherever necessary

 *Set up a very high ideal for himself as Paternal Kingship (Father of all)

Ashoka & Buddhism

 *Ashoka’s conversion to Buddhism was gradual not immediate as he first became a sakya upasaka (Lay disciple) & 2 ½ years later became a bikshu (Monk) & gave up hunting

 *Constituted Dhamma yatras to Sarnath, Bodhh Gaya etc. & appointed special officers called Dhamma Mahamantras to propagate Dhamma among various social groups

 *Sent his son Mahendra & daughter Sangamitra to Srilanka who planted branches of original Bodhi tree there

 *Convened 3rd Buddhist council at patliputra to strengthen sangha

- Ashoka’s dhamma was to preserve the social order & held that if people behaved well they would achieve heaven. He never said they would attain Nirvana which was the primary aim of Buddhism. Hence, his teachings were intended to maintain social order on the basis of tolerance & does not seems to have preached any sectarian path

Ashoka’s Dhamma as mentioned in his various edicts may be summoned as follows:

 *Service to father & mother, Reverence to teachers, Practice of ahimsa & love of truth

 *Prohibition of animal sacrifices & slaughter, Prohibition of festive gathering for meaningless rituals

 *Humane treatment of servants by the masters & prisoners by the governmental officials

 *Courtesy to relations & liberty to Brahamanas with tolerance towards all religious sects

 *Conquest through Dhamma instead of war

 *Kandhar inscription speaks of success of his policies as hunters & fisherman gave up hunting & killing & began practicing agriculture

 *Ashoka’s death was followed by division of Mauryan Empire into 2 parts Western & Eastern.

 *Western part was collapsed by Bactrian invasion & Eastern part last king was assassinated by Pushyamitra Sunga

Mauryan Administration

Central Government

 *Monarchy was supported by Kautilya however he did not stand for royal absolutism & advocated king to take advice of his ministry in running the administration

 *A council of ministers called mantriparishad assisted the king in administration matters ( COM consisted of Purohit, Mahamantri, Senapati & Yuvraj )

 *Civil servants known as “amatyas” were appointed to look after day to day administration & their selection method was given by Kautilya

Revenue Department

 *“Samharta”, the chief of revenue department was incharge of collection of all revenues of the department

 *“Sannidhata”, Chief custodian of state treasury & store house

Commerce & Industry

 *Commerce & industry (Custom duties, Foreign affairs, Weight & measure etc) was controlled by officers known as “Adhyakshas”

Judiciary

 *Judicial chief justice of Supreme Court at capital in mauryan times was known as “Dharmadhikari”

 *Subordinate courts were under Amatyas & jails under appointed officers

Provincial & Local administration

- Mauryan Empire was divided into 4 provinces with capitals at:

 *Taxila

 *Ujjain

 *Suvarnagiri

 *Kalinga

- Provincial governors were appointed from the royal family

 *District administration was under the charge of “Rajukas”, who in turn were assisted by “Yuktas” or subordinate officials

 *Village administration was in hand of “Gramani “ & his official supervisors called “Gopa” (Head of 10 – 15 villages)

Art & Architecture

 *Use of stone to make monuments started in time of Ashoka

 *Highly polished, monolithic, slightly tapering rock pillars & highly polished caves (for monks)

 *Sarnath Pillar: 4 lions standing back to back with small lion, elephant, bull & horse in circle

 *Barabar hills near Bodh Gaya were presented to Ajivikas by Ashoka & his son Dasratha forms wonderful piece of mauryan architecture

 *Introduction of burnt bricks to make structures & ring wells along with use of spoked wheel for the 1st time after Indus valley civilization

 *Abundance of pottery NBPW & punch marked coins were found of Mauryan era

 *May be art of making steel started & spread by Mauryas

Cause of fall of Mauryan Empire

 *Ashoka’s pro Buddhist policies along with prohibition of sacrifices & rituals antagonized Brahamanas who brought about a revolution led by Pushyamitra Sunga

 *Weak successors, Partition of empire, administrative abuses by Dustamatyas (Heavy taxex) after Ashoka’s reign led to the fall of empire

 *Widespread use of iron led to formation of new kingdoms & neglection of N-W front by Mauryan also led to their downfall

 *Chinese ruler “Shih-Huang-Ti” constructed great wall of China to prevent its border against sythians who were an Iranian equestrian tribe, but Mauryan did not do any such thing

 *Pushyamitra sunga (Brahamana) killed last Mauryan emperor Brihadratha publicly & persecuted Buddhists and restarted Vedic rituals & sacrifices.